Chapter 1

The Need for a Culture of Injury Prevention

Why every member of the cast and crew owns set safety, and speaking up is the single most important skill on any production.

I started my movie career in 1986, working as a set medic, where my job was primarily to treat and transport stunt performers whose stunts had gone awry. It soon became clear that movie sets could be far safer with more science and less “cowboyism.” I began coordinating stunts with knowledge borrowed from physics and physiology. Eventually, I moved into coordinating special effects and pyrotechnics, where I added chemistry to the mix.

In 2023 to 2024, I served as the principal expert witness for the civil case against Alec Baldwin in the shooting death of Halyna Hutchins on the set of Rust. I’ve been an expert witness and private investigator in more than a dozen cases involving deaths and injuries in the entertainment industry, and I helped a client in New Mexico win the largest personal injury award in the state’s history, after a camera crane truck crushed him.

To see how Halyna Hutchins was killed, and how thorough an expert witness report is, read the official report: bit.ly/TheBaldwinReport

Every incident I’ve investigated focuses on these three things:

1. What was supposed to happen? (How should the event have been conducted?)
2. What actually happened?
3. How did the departure from what should have been done result in injury or death?

I call these events incidents, not accidents. An incident is any unplanned event that hurt someone or could have, including the near miss that scared everyone and harmed no one. The word “accident” smuggles a second meaning inside it: that what happened was bad luck, unforeseeable, nobody’s fault, the kind of thing that befalls people. On a film set that’s almost never true. The events I investigate were foreseeable, and somebody could have prevented them.

People hear “accidental” and think it means the opposite of “on purpose,” but those aren’t opposites. Unintentional is not the same as unavoidable, and it isn’t the same as blameless. A gun that goes off when no one meant it to still went off because of a chain of decisions someone made, and the bullet is just as deadly for not being aimed. The harm wasn’t intended; it was still preventable, and someone was still responsible. That’s an incident. Calling it an accident is how the people who should have prevented it get to walk away, and this book is an argument that they shouldn’t. I’ll say incident, and I’ll mean it.

This book distills 38 years in film and entertainment into a thorough account of the ways people get sick, hurt, or killed on a set.

The danger isn’t where you’d expect. This book devotes whole chapters to the spectacular hazards: explosions, gunfire, stunts, animals. They earn the attention, because when they go wrong they kill people. But the injuries that fill the medical logs and the workers’ compensation claims are rarely the dramatic ones. They’re the strained back from a bad lift, the ankle turned on a cable in the dark, the fall from a ladder, the exhausted drive home at the end of a sixteen-hour day, and the illness that runs through a crew packed shoulder to shoulder for weeks. These are quieter, they don’t make the news, and precisely because they don’t frighten us they get ignored, which is exactly how they keep happening. A serious culture of injury prevention treats the frequent, unglamorous hazards with the same respect it gives the explosion. You’ll find that thread, call it crew health, running through this book alongside the loud stuff: fatigue, illness, lifting, footing, and the ordinary business of getting a hundred tired people through a long day and safely home.

There’s a good chance that if someone gets hurt on a movie set in the United States, I’ll be the expert their lawyer calls to explain what happened and who was responsible. I’d rather share what I’ve learned in advance, so you and your production can run an incident-free set.

Moviemaking may be the most exciting art form there is, but it demands constant “low-level paranoia”: always asking “what if?” Answer that question in advance, and you sharply reduce the chance your movie becomes famous for all the wrong reasons.

This book is not a substitute for expertise in any specialized area or set of skills, but it’s a good guide to what to look for, and who to look for, when hiring.

Chapter 2

Planning for Health and Safety

Who is legally responsible for safety on set, and the eight elements of a credible health-and-safety program.

Who Is Responsible for Safety?

Determining who’s in charge of set safety is difficult. Who decides if a location is too dangerous, or if a stunt should proceed? Who has the authority to halt production when something feels unsafe? In film production, health and safety responsibilities are complex because the industry is layered.

Legally, under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act), the employer is responsible. But even figuring out who the actual employer is, whether it’s the production company, an independent contractor, or a studio, can be tough.

This is much like wildfire prevention: Smokey Bear told us, “Only you can prevent forest fires.” Every person on set has a right to be safe, and to raise any safety concern they have.

There’s a second half to that authority that matters just as much: it crosses department lines. The grip can call a stop on something the pyrotechnician is doing; the makeup artist can call a stop on a rigging problem; the production assistant can call a stop on an electrical hazard. Safety isn’t the private property of whichever department owns the equipment. But the people who understand a given hazard are usually the same few who work with that gear every day, while everyone else walks past the warning signs without recognizing them. That’s exactly why this book covers every department and not just yours. If you learn what a badly braced lift, an unsafe gun-handling habit, a frayed cable, or a spooked horse looks like, you become another trained set of eyes, and a hundred trained sets of eyes catch far more than a dozen specialists ever could. Read the chapters that aren’t about your job. The hazard you notice in someone else’s department may be the one nobody else was watching.

Production Company

Typically, the production company is responsible for hiring everyone, from the actors to the crew. Even if the producer delegates authority to the director or others, the production company remains legally accountable for safety on set.

Studios

Motion picture and television studios that own the facilities may have their own teams. However, if a production company is renting space, it’s still their responsibility to ensure the safety of their crew. Studios can still be held liable if negligence is proven in third-party lawsuits.

Director

The director plays a huge role in overseeing production and is directly responsible for safety on set. Many directors work as independent contractors, which means they could be personally liable if their actions or negligence lead to injuries.

Key Crew Members

Key crew members like the first assistant director, the director of photography, the key grip, the stunt coordinator, and the special effects coordinator each have a critical role in managing risks in their areas. That work covers camera placement, set safety, and the safe execution of stunts.

Unions

Unions advocate for worker safety but don’t bear the responsibility of enforcing it. Instead, they push for health-and-safety clauses in contracts, handle grievances, and collaborate on safety efforts.

Employees

All crew members have a responsibility to follow safety protocols and report hazards. They also have the right to file complaints with OSHA or their union if working conditions are unsafe.

You!

You are responsible for your own safety. This doesn’t mean that others don’t play a role, but in the end, if you feel unsafe, walk away. Live to film another day.

Health and Safety Program

Producers are legally responsible for maintaining a safe environment for everyone on set, which includes setting up a thorough health-and-safety program. Such a program not only reduces risks and prevents incidents but can also lower costs tied to insurance and lawsuits.

Emergency Contact Information

In case of a serious emergency requiring medical assistance or the fire department, always call 911 immediately. Be prepared to provide a clear assessment of the situation and to guide the emergency personnel to your exact location.

Key Elements of a Health and Safety Program

1. Management Support

Producers must visibly support safety measures, starting with a clear policy statement that outlines the program’s goals, responsibilities, and management’s commitment.

2. Safety Director

A dedicated safety director, ideally someone experienced in both film production and safety regulations, should lead the program. On smaller productions, safety tasks might be delegated, but the producer is ultimately responsible.

3. Health and Safety Committee

This committee, comprising union representatives and management, should oversee inspections, investigate incidents, and implement safety measures. They also need the authority to stop production if any dangerous situations arise. The committee can be composed of any number of experienced people working on a given project.

4. Inspections and Reporting

Regular inspections can help catch hazards before incidents occur. A formal system for reporting and investigating injuries or illnesses should be established.

5. Emergency Planning

Emergency procedures, especially important for remote locations, must be laid out. This includes planning for evacuations, fire safety, and immediate medical care.

6. Education and Training

Everyone on set must be trained in safety protocols, especially those handling chemicals, stunts, or special effects. New hires should be given immediate safety orientations, and all employees should receive regular refresher training.

7. Medical Services

There should be a medical team on-site to handle daily needs and emergencies, especially in high-risk or remote filming locations.

8. Monitoring and Evaluation

The effectiveness of the safety program should be continuously monitored, with regular evaluations to ensure it’s working as planned.

Chapter 3

Location Selection

How to survey a location for hidden hazards, from wildlife and weather to communicable diseases and structural decay.

When choosing a filming location, the initial survey should focus on identifying potential hazards that could impact the site’s safety or require preventive measures. This might involve consulting with experts or local authorities about specific dangers like structural integrity, common diseases, or dangerous animals. Once hazards are identified, determine whether they can be mitigated, or if you need to consider a different location. Below is a breakdown of common hazards and recommendations for handling them.

General Hazards

Animals

Wild animals and poisonous reptiles can pose serious threats in many outdoor areas. Depending on the situation, some may attack or carry diseases like rabies. To minimize risks, avoid feeding animals or leaving food where they can access it. Also, ensure the set is secure from wandering wildlife. If you’re filming in areas with dangerous predators such as bears and mountain lions, an armed and trained security person should be present. Chapter 9 covers working with animals.

Civil Unrest

Filming in areas experiencing conflict, terrorism, or civil unrest is dangerous. Risks include hostage situations, injury, death, or being cut off from supplies. Stay informed through newspapers, but also consult the U.S. State Department or local consulates for more detailed information on smaller conflicts not covered by the media. In many cases employing bodyguards is a good idea.

Climate

Extreme temperatures, both hot and cold, can directly affect the health of your cast and crew. Heat can lead to heat stroke, while cold can cause frostbite, and in extreme cases of each, to fatalities. Careful planning is essential to reduce time spent in such conditions, or to avoid them entirely. Heat- and cold-related issues are covered in detail in Chapter 5.

Communicable Diseases

Certain regions may have localized health risks such as insect-borne diseases, animal-transmitted infections, or illnesses from contaminated food and water. Before selecting a location, assess the health risks, and consult a qualified physician regarding necessary vaccinations or medications. Further discussion on this is available in Chapter 10.

Communications

Reliable communication is crucial, particularly in emergencies. In remote areas, phones may be unreliable or nonexistent, so you’ll need to provide radio communications for emergencies, especially during stunts or hazardous activities.

Emergency Services

The availability and quality of local emergency services, like fire departments, ambulances, and hospitals, should be evaluated. If they’re inadequate, you’ll need to plan for direct provision of emergency services. This is further discussed in Chapters 6 and 10.

Food and Water

Foodborne and waterborne illness is one of the most underestimated hazards on a location shoot, because people file it under discomfort rather than danger. It’s both. While filming the India sequences for The Jungle Book, on any given day roughly a third of the crew was down with some form of foodborne illness. Think about what that means on a working set: not just misery, but a third of your skilled people weakened, dehydrated, and distracted while the other two thirds cover for them, and some of those people are operating equipment, rigging, or working at height. A sick crew is a crew that makes mistakes, and dehydration alone slows reaction time and judgment in exactly the people you need sharp.

In many regions, contaminated food and water pose significant health risks, leading to illnesses like traveler’s diarrhea, and in worse cases to dysentery, hepatitis, typhoid, or cholera. If there’s any chance the local water is contaminated, use only boiled, bottled, or disinfected water for drinking, for ice, and for brushing teeth, and remember that ice is a common way people get caught out after they’ve been careful about everything else. Avoid raw foods like salads, undercooked meats, and unpasteurized dairy, which can carry bacteria or parasites. Beyond the individual rules, the production should own the job of feeding the crew safely: vet the caterer, control the cold chain so food doesn’t sit at unsafe temperatures, provide hand-washing stations, supply abundant safe drinking water, and keep oral rehydration salts and a medical plan ready. On a long shoot in a high-risk region it isn’t a question of whether some of the crew will get sick, but how many, and how fast you can get them back on their feet.

Insects

Insect bites can range from annoying to life-threatening, especially if they carry diseases like malaria or Lyme disease. In high-risk areas, consider alternative locations or use insect repellents, protective clothing, and mosquito nets.

Poisonous Plants

Areas with poisonous plants like poison ivy or oak are common hazards. Make sure your crew is trained to recognize these plants, and that they wear protective clothing like long sleeves and pants in affected areas.

Power

Film production demands a significant amount of electricity. Ensure that local power sources can meet your needs, and always have backup power options. A qualified electrician should verify the adequacy of the local power supply. More on electrical safety is in Chapter 5.

Transportation

Evaluate how safe, reliable, and convenient local transportation is. In remote or underdeveloped areas, it may be necessary to arrange your own transportation, especially for emergencies. Helicopter travel, though sometimes essential, has higher crash rates. The dangers of helicopter travel are discussed in Chapter 8.

Violent Crime

Some locations are dangerous not because of the terrain or the weather but because of the people. A film production is a soft, conspicuous, cash-and-equipment-rich target that rolls into a neighborhood, sets up obviously expensive gear in plain sight, and then leaves. In parts of some cities and some countries, that makes a production a magnet for theft, armed robbery, and in the worst regions for extortion or the kidnapping of cast and crew. This is separate from the civil-unrest risk above: you can be in a perfectly stable place and still be working a block where it isn’t safe to stand around after dark with a camera package.

Assess the actual crime picture of the specific location, not the country or the city in the abstract, using the U.S. State Department, local law enforcement, and a reputable local fixer or security advisor who knows the ground. Where the risk is real, the protections are practical: hire professional security, keep a low profile, lock down and guard the equipment and the staging areas, plan and vary travel routes, avoid moving valuables or people through dangerous areas at night, minimize visible cash, and brief the crew on what to do if they’re confronted, which is to give up the gear and not their lives. Be willing to move the shoot if a location can’t be made safe. The gear is insured; the people aren’t replaceable.

Weather

Check the local weather conditions for potential hazards like storms, tornadoes, hurricanes, or flash floods. These can disrupt filming and endanger the crew. Monitor weather forecasts closely, and avoid risky locations during severe weather seasons.

Special Hazards

Buildings

Old or abandoned buildings can be hazardous because of structural instability. Always have an engineer inspect such buildings for safety. Additionally, older buildings might contain asbestos or lead paint, both of which pose serious health risks. If asbestos is present, it should be handled only by licensed contractors. Lead paint should be vacuumed and disposed of properly. Hazardous-materials teams should be consulted for chemical hazards, and local health departments can assist with biological risks like mold.

City Streets

Filming on city streets introduces risks like potholes and overhead wires. These can become dangerous, especially during scenes involving stunts or heavy equipment. Ensure the streets are in good condition, and take precautions against air pollution, which can be harmful during strenuous activities.

Deserts

Desert locations present unique challenges such as extreme heat during the day, cold at night, dehydration, and sandstorms. Plan for these conditions by ensuring adequate water supplies and appropriate clothing and shelter. I’ve filmed in Death Valley, and crew members helicoptered in from Los Angeles in shorts and flip-flops as if they were spending a day at the beach. They also left by helicopter, but that one said MediVac on it.

Foreign Countries

The same hazards apply when filming abroad, but with additional complications from varying local customs, laws, and healthcare standards. Cultural misunderstandings can lead to serious issues, so it’s vital to prepare accordingly. Foreign foods can also wreak havoc on a crew, as the India shoot on The Jungle Book showed.

Mountains

Mountain filming poses dangers like accessibility problems, violent air currents, falls, rock slides, and even the possibility of crew members getting lost. Thorough local planning and expertise are essential for safety in these environments.

Water

Filming near or on water, whether ponds, rivers, or oceans, presents multiple risks, including swift currents, poisonous creatures, or hidden underwater hazards. Always survey water areas and consult local authorities. Cold water increases the risk of hypothermia, so consider timing and temperature when filming.

In small, controlled bodies of water, contamination risks should be addressed by regular water testing, and if necessary, water should be replaced or the location changed. Weather conditions, especially in oceans, can be unpredictable, so storm tracking is crucial.

Chapter 4

Pre-Production

Hazards in set construction, from carpentry and welding to plastics, resins, and adhesives.

Pre-production involves building sets and props, which can be done in scene shops or on-site. These can range from full-scale constructions to miniatures for special effects.

Carpentry

Set construction uses various materials like wood, plywood, particle board, and plexiglass, along with tools and adhesives. Some materials pose health risks. For instance, hardwood dusts can cause respiratory issues, including cancer, and working with particle boards can release formaldehyde, which is a known irritant and carcinogen.

Carpentry Safety Rules

1. Always wear safety goggles or glasses. Face shields alone don’t protect the eyes.
2. Use NIOSH-approved dust masks when necessary.
3. Avoid loose clothing, jewelry, or neckties near power tools.
4. Keep work areas clean, well-lit, and free of debris or water.
5. Never leave machines running unattended.
6. Hard hats must be worn in designated areas, and hard-soled shoes or boots should be used, especially when working with heavy objects or on raised structures.

Woodworking Machines

1. Ensure machines are secured and guarded.
2. Machine guards must meet safety standards and be securely attached.
3. Each machine needs an accessible stop switch and a master switch to lock in the off position.
4. Maintain sharp tools and clear waste from work surfaces.
5. Machines generating wood dust should have exhaust systems.
6. Hearing protection is necessary when noise levels make conversation difficult.

Powered Hand Tools

1. Check and maintain electric cords.
2. Keep guards and shields in place.
3. Use quick-release controls to shut off power tools when released.
4. Ensure tools are grounded and double-insulated.
5. Secure pneumatic tools properly, and ensure tool retainers are in place.

Hand Tools

1. Maintain tools in good condition and replace damaged ones.
2. Store tools safely and have control procedures in place.

Scaffolding

1. Follow OSHA regulations.
2. Experienced personnel should erect and dismantle scaffolds.
3. Scaffolds should support four times the maximum intended load.
4. Scaffolds need guardrails and toeboards if above certain heights.
5. Rolling scaffolds must have locking wheels and proper bracing.
6. Ensure the scaffold’s location is safe, level, and under production control.

Welding, Cutting, and Brazing

Welding poses both health and fire hazards. The fumes from metals like lead, nickel, and zinc can be toxic, while ultraviolet radiation from arc welding can cause eye damage and skin cancer.

Fire and Safety Hazards

1. Only weld in designated fire-safe areas.
2. OSHA requires a fire watch in areas where fire risk exists and for 30 minutes after welding stops.
3. Welders should be trained and certified.
4. Ensure areas are free from flammable gases and materials.
5. Welding equipment must be kept dry, and cables should be stored neatly.

Health Hazards

Ventilation is key to protecting against fumes. For some metals, air-supplied respirators are required. Protective gear like goggles and gloves should always be used.

Welding and Cutting: Respirator and Ventilation Requirements

Mechanical Ventilation and Respiratory Protection

A: Use mechanical local exhaust ventilation, like hoods or booths, that can maintain airflow at least 100 linear feet per minute.

B: Use a NIOSH-approved supplied-air respirator.

C: Use NIOSH-approved respiratory equipment.

*Note: This only applies if air contamination under the worst conditions remains within acceptable levels as defined by CFR 1910.1000.

1. For metals not specifically listed, mechanical ventilation is necessary if the work area is under 10,000 cubic feet per welder, the ceiling is under 16 feet, or the work is happening in an enclosed space.
2. Air velocity should be at least 2,000 cubic feet per minute per welder. If you don’t have hoods or booths with an airflow of 100 linear feet per minute, you’ll need to use approved supplied-air respirators.
3. If respirators are in use, OSHA requires a written program covering the selection of respirators, training, and fit testing. (CFR 1910.36 and 1910.37)
4. Welders must wear goggles or helmets with eye protection, and use hand shields during welding and cutting.
5. People nearby also need protection from heat, sparks, and UV rays.

For more details, see National Fire Protection Association standard 51B-1962, which covers fire prevention during welding and cutting operations.

Painting

Painting and coating sets with solvent-based materials can pose health risks from inhaling toxic solvents and pigments, and fire hazards. Water-based paints are safer, but still contain small amounts of solvents.

Precautions:

1. Use water-based paints whenever possible.
2. Mix paints in ventilated areas.
3. Provide adequate ventilation when using solvent-based products.
4. Store flammable materials in approved cabinets.
5. Always use the correct respirators and filters when handling paints or sprays.

Paints, lacquers, varnishes, and dye solutions are used in scenic painting. They can be water-based or solvent-based, but even water-based paints can contain over 5% solvents to dissolve resin components. Some pigments, like chrome yellow (lead chromate), are toxic when inhaled or ingested. Many dyes can be hazardous by inhalation or through skin contact.

When spraying paints and lacquers, spray mists may contain organic solvents, which stay in the air for hours and can be deeply inhaled. Solvents and propellants in spray cans (like butane and propane) also pose fire risks.

Props and Models

Props and models can be made from various materials, including hazardous plastics like polyurethane, polyester, and epoxy resins. These resins can release harmful fumes, and some materials, like isocyanates, can cause severe respiratory issues.

Safety Tips:

1. Avoid spraying toxic resins unless in a spray booth. If unavoidable, use self-contained breathing apparatus.
2. Wear gloves, goggles, and protective clothing when working with plastic resins.
3. Use local exhaust ventilation for large-scale applications.
4. Handle adhesives carefully, as many contain harmful solvents like hexane, which can cause nerve damage.

Fabricating Plastics

Working with finished plastics, especially when sanding, cutting, or heating, can release toxic fumes and gases. Glues and cements used in plastic fabrication often contain solvents that pose both health and fire hazards.

Safety Measures:

1. Avoid overheating plastics to prevent toxic gas release.
2. Use adequate ventilation or respirators during sanding or cutting.
3. Follow proper storage and handling procedures for adhesives and solvents.

Adhesives

Many adhesives contain solvents that can be hazardous through inhalation or skin contact. Instant-bond glues can cause skin irritation or bonding, and some wood glues may release formaldehyde, a potential carcinogen.

Safety Tips:

1. Use the least hazardous glue possible.
2. Ensure proper ventilation when using adhesives.
3. Avoid skin contact, especially with solvent-based adhesives.
4. Handle aerosol adhesives with caution to avoid inhaling particles and vapors.

Powdered Dyes and Pigments

Most dyes dissolve in water, but some need alcohol. The main risk with powdered dyes and pigments is inhalation. Some can also irritate the skin.

1. Opt for liquid dyes and paints to reduce the risk of inhaling dust.
2. Use water-based dyes instead of alcohol-based ones, but if you must use alcohol, choose denatured or isopropyl alcohol over more dangerous methyl alcohol.
3. You can mix powders into a concentrated solution or paste in a glove box (a sealed box with armholes), avoiding messy cleanup and the need for a toxic dust respirator. Dilute the paste as needed.
4. If you’re not using a glove box, wear a NIOSH-approved respirator with a filter for toxic dusts and mists.
5. Don’t use bleach to remove dye stains from skin. Bleach is an irritant and can decompose dyes into more hazardous chemicals.
6. If you need to spray bleach onto scenery to decolorize dyes, do it inside a spray booth or while wearing a full-face air-purifying respirator with an acid gas canister.

Solvents and Thinners

Solvents are used to dissolve and mix oils, resins, varnishes, and inks, and to clean tools or brushes. Most solvents are toxic if inhaled or swallowed, and they can cause skin irritation (dermatitis). At high concentrations, they can lead to dizziness, nausea, fatigue, or even brain damage after long-term exposure. They can also harm organs like the liver, kidneys, heart, and reproductive system.

Most solvents are flammable or combustible:

• Flammable liquids have flash points below 100°F, meaning they can catch fire at normal temperatures if there’s a spark or flame.
• Combustible liquids have flash points above 100°F, but they can still ignite if sprayed or heated.

Safety Tips:

1. Always get Material Safety Data Sheets for solvents and all other products you use.
2. Use the least toxic solvents possible. For example, odorless mineral spirits are safer than aromatic hydrocarbons like toluene or xylene. Avoid chlorinated solvents whenever possible, as they are likely carcinogens.
3. Avoid skin contact with solvents. Don’t use them to clean your hands. Baby oil or mineral oil works better, and gloves will help protect your skin.
4. Make sure there’s proper ventilation when using solvents. According to OSHA standards, solvent vapor concentrations must be kept below Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs). I recommend keeping vapor levels at less than 1/10 of the OSHA PEL for safety. For small amounts of solvents, a window exhaust fan is usually enough, but for more toxic substances, use local exhaust ventilation.
5. Follow OSHA guidelines (CFR 1910.106) for storing and handling flammable and combustible liquids.
6. Only keep the minimum amount of solvent you need, and buy it in small containers. Store large quantities in approved flammable storage cabinets.
7. Always keep containers closed, and avoid smoking or having open flames near solvents.
8. Use proper ventilation in areas where you transfer flammable solvents, and have emergency procedures for spills.
9. Keep a Class B fire extinguisher nearby, within 10 to 25 feet of where solvents are stored and within 50 feet of areas where they’re used.

Paints and Other Coatings

Flammable lacquers, varnishes, and shellacs pose serious fire and health risks. Lacquers are especially dangerous since they often contain more toxic solvents like toluene and xylene. Denatured alcohol, often found in shellacs, is less hazardous, but avoid methyl-alcohol-based ones.

Solvent-based paints and coatings are combustible but not a huge fire hazard at normal temperatures unless sprayed. Mineral spirits (paint thinner) is a common solvent in these coatings, but paints with high levels of toluene or xylene are more dangerous and can be absorbed through the skin.

Aerosol spray paints are extremely flammable, as they typically contain propane or other gases under pressure.

Safety Tips:

1. Whenever possible, replace solvent-based paints and coatings with water-based alternatives to reduce fire and health risks.
2. Mix solvent-based paints inside a spray booth or slot hood. If you need to add powdered pigments or other airborne powders, wear a respirator.
3. Use adequate ventilation when brushing or rolling solvent-based paints, or when spray-painting outside a spray booth.
4. For large-scale coating operations (several gallons at a time): apply the coating at the end of the day to minimize exposure; keep everyone not involved in the coating out of the area; leave ventilation running all night to clear out solvent vapors; remove all ignition sources and follow fire safety procedures; workers involved should wear positive-pressure, air-supplied respirators.
5. Do all spraying of flammable or combustible solvents in designated areas or explosion-proof spray booths.
6. If you need to spray-paint in other areas (like on a finished set), remove all potential ignition sources and ensure proper ventilation.
7. When spraying outside a spray booth, wear a NIOSH-approved respirator with organic vapor cartridges and paint spray filters.

Plastic Resins

Plastics are made from long chains of smaller molecules (monomers). Working with plastic resins is dangerous because many monomers are highly toxic. They may also contain toxic solvents, fillers, and catalysts.

• Polyurethane systems, including paints and expandable foams (A-B foams), consist of two components, one of which is isocyanate, a strong skin, eye, and respiratory irritant. Even low-level exposure can cause asthma, and when sprayed, isocyanates are extremely dangerous.
• Polyester resin systems (like fiberglass) release styrene, which is a strong irritant and narcotic, requiring good ventilation. The hardener used in these systems (MEK peroxide) is a skin irritant that can cause blindness and is sensitive to heat and shock.
• Epoxy systems include resins, glues, and paints. The epoxy resin contains diglycidyl ethers, which are irritants and possible carcinogens.

Safety Tips for Plastic Resins:

1. Don’t spray polyurethane foam resins unless you’re using a spray booth; they’re extremely toxic. If that’s not possible, wear self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
2. When casting or doing hand layup with polyurethane, polyester, or epoxy resins, use a spray booth and wear a full-face, air-purifying respirator with organic vapor canisters.
3. For large-scale applications, ensure excellent ventilation and wear air-supplied respirators.
4. Always wear gloves, goggles, and protective clothing when working with plastic resins.

Fabricating Plastics

The main hazards when working with finished plastics come from the processes, like sawing or heating, that release toxic fumes and gases. Some adhesives used for plastic fabrication contain toxic solvents.

• Sanding or heating polyurethane foam releases toxic gases. Work in a spray booth or wear SCBA.
• When working with styrofoam, use proper ventilation or hot-wire cutting to avoid toxic gas exposure.
• For any plastic work that generates dust, vacuum regularly to remove buildup.
• Use the correct respirators and filters based on the plastic material you’re working with.

Adhesives:

Many adhesives contain harmful solvents. Use VOC filters with a respirator.

Chapter 5

On Location

Everything that happens between the call sheet and wrap: communicating risks, fire and life safety, vehicles, boats, cameras, rigging, costumes, and the elements.

Filming on location brings many hazards. This chapter covers general fire and safety concerns, risks related to the camera crew (cameras, lights, scaffolding, rigging), costume and makeup hazards, and environmental factors (heat, cold, water). Many of these precautions also apply to permanent studios. High-risk activities like special effects and stunts are covered in later chapters.

Communicating Risks on the Call Sheet

When preparing a call sheet for a production, list the specific safety concerns that could affect the cast and crew. Including them helps everyone stay aware of the hazards and follow proper protocols. Below are the key safety concerns to list on the call sheet.

Stunt Work or Hazardous Activities

• Description of stunts. Clearly outline any stunts planned for the day, including water, fire, or high-fall stunts.
• Safety gear required. List any required safety equipment (helmets, harnesses, padding).
• Stunt coordinator contact information. Ensure the stunt coordinator’s name and contact information are provided.

Environmental Hazards

• Extreme weather conditions. If shooting outdoors, list any concerns about extreme heat, cold, high winds, or rain. Include precautions such as hydration, sunscreen, or cold-weather gear.
• Terrain and location risks. Mention any risks related to uneven terrain, cliffs, water bodies, or hazardous areas (near construction zones, industrial sites).

Equipment Hazards

• Heavy machinery or vehicles. If heavy machinery (cranes, drones, boom lifts) or vehicles are in use, specify where they will be and any precautions, such as restricted zones or required personal protective equipment.
• Electricity and cables. Note any potential hazards from electrical equipment, especially around water or damp conditions. Ensure cable management is highlighted to avoid tripping hazards.

Water-Based Filming

• Water safety. If filming near or on water, mention life jackets, swimming requirements, or special equipment. Include a warning about potential drowning risks.
• Weather and tides. List concerns about tides, currents, and weather changes that could impact water safety.

Fire or Pyrotechnics

• Pyrotechnic effects. Note any use of fire, explosions, or fireworks. Include information about fire safety officers or specialists on set.
• Fire safety measures. Provide information on fire extinguishers, fire blankets, and the location of the nearest fire exits.

Health-Related Protocols

• COVID-19 protocols. If applicable, remind cast and crew of health screenings, mask-wearing, and social-distancing guidelines.
• Sanitation measures. Mention the availability of hand sanitizer, regular cleaning schedules, and hygiene stations.

Animals on Set

• Animal safety. List any animals present on set and provide instructions for safe interaction. Include contact information for animal handlers and note any required behavioral guidelines.
• Allergy concerns. Include any allergy warnings related to animals.

High-Risk Physical Activities

• Climbing or heights. If shooting on rooftops, cliffs, or scaffolding, list fall-protection requirements, including harnesses or railings.
• Diving, running, or physical exertion. Specify risks related to intense physical activity and any health precautions to be taken.

Restricted Areas and Exclusion Zones

• Restricted zones. Mark any areas that are off-limits to certain crew members or the entire team. These could be high-risk zones near stunts, machinery, or dangerous drop-offs.
• Crew positioning for safety. Ensure areas where cameras or equipment might pose a danger (drone flight paths) are clearly marked.

Emergency Contact Information

• First aid and medical staff. List the names and contact information for on-set medical personnel or first-aid officers.
• Emergency exits and procedures. Highlight emergency exits and include instructions for evacuation.
• Local emergency services. Provide information for contacting local emergency services, including nearby hospitals and their addresses.

Fatigue and Hydration Awareness

• Long hours or night shoots. Mention concerns about fatigue if the shoot involves long hours or nighttime filming. Encourage rest and hydration breaks.
• Water stations and meal breaks. Indicate where water stations and rest areas are located and list meal break times.

Chemical and Toxic Exposure

• Use of chemicals or hazardous materials. Mention any chemicals or makeup products that could pose allergic reactions or toxicity risks. Include safety protocols for handling these materials.

Noise Levels

• Hearing protection. If loud equipment or gunfire is used, include information about hearing-protection requirements or noise-exposure limits.

Allergen and Sensitivity Notices

• Food allergies. If catering is provided, note any food allergens and ensure food is labeled accordingly.
• Fragrance sensitivities. Encourage cast and crew to avoid wearing strong perfumes or scented products if people on set have sensitivities.

Transportation and Parking Safety

• Transport safety. Highlight any safety issues related to transportation to and from the location, such as parking-lot safety, shuttle schedules, and vehicle coordination.
• Driving safety. If cast or crew need to drive as part of the shoot, include road safety concerns and contact information for transportation coordinators.

General Fire and Life Safety

Permanent film studios are required to meet fire and life-safety codes and obtain permits for certain activities like pyrotechnics. Temporary filming locations must also secure various permits (see Chapter 11). The guidelines here are largely based on the California State Fire Marshal’s Film Industry Fire/Life Safety Handbook, but the principles are applicable across locations. For specific regulations, refer to the Uniform Fire Codes.

Access Routes and Exits

It’s essential to keep access routes and exits clear for emergency vehicles and ensure people can evacuate easily in an emergency. Regular inspections are crucial to avoid blockages from props, equipment, or set materials.

• Exit signs should be posted in rooms holding more than 50 people, and exit lighting should be provided.
• Maximum travel distance to an exit should be 150 feet (unsprinklered buildings) or 200 feet (sprinklered buildings).
• Exits to public streets or passageways must be unobstructed.
• Electrical cables should be placed along walls to minimize tripping or obstruction risks.

Fire Hazards

Fires require three components: something to burn, oxygen, and a source of ignition. On a film set, potential fuel sources include dry vegetation, sawdust, flammable liquids, and fuels. Oxygen is always available in the air, but compressed oxygen tanks can intensify fire hazards. Ignition sources might come from lighting equipment, electrical sparks, welding, or even smoking.

Combustible Materials

Good housekeeping is key to controlling fire risks:

• Keep floors and work areas free of combustible materials like wood scraps and rags.
• Store combustibles in approved containers and dispose of them properly.
• Clear unnecessary dry vegetation at least 20 feet from buildings.
• Store oily rags and similar materials in approved containers and empty them daily.

Flammable Liquids and Gases

• Only use approved flammable-liquid safety containers (up to 5 gallons).
• Refueling should take place in designated, ventilated areas by trained personnel.
• Propane heaters shouldn’t be used inside tents, and propane cylinders must be securely stored.

Fire and Other Ignition Sources

• No fire should be near combustible materials unless they’re flame-proofed.
• Fire-extinguishing equipment must be present during fire-effects filming.
• Smoking must be prohibited in areas with fuels, flammable liquids, pyrotechnics, tents, or spray painting.

Fire Extinguishers

Fire extinguishers are classified by the types of fires they are designed to put out. Fires are categorized into five main classes (A, B, C, D, and K), and each extinguisher type is suitable for specific classes of fires. Here’s an overview of the types of fire extinguishers and their purposes.

Personal Gear

Each crew member should have the following equipment when working on set, whether they buy it or the production provides it.

Crew members on location should ALWAYS have the following on them when at work:

• Flashlight
• Pocket knife
• “LeatherMan” or similar multi-tool
• Work gloves
• Whistle
• Water bottle

Crew members will OFTEN need:

• Hearing protection
• Eye protection
• Rain gear (jacket and pants)
• Sturdy work boots
• Sunscreen

Crew members should not wear open-toed shoes, sandals, or clothing with tassels that can get caught on things.

Jewelry and Perfume

Leave them both at home. Earrings, rings, necklaces, and piercings can all get snagged on machinery and cause you injury. They also conduct heat and can contribute to burns.

Perfume that smells good to you may trigger an allergy in someone else. Please skip it at work. This extends to fragranced hand creams and other products. (This does not mean that you shouldn’t wear deodorant.)

The Everyday Hazards

The hazards in this section won’t make a trailer. They’re the ones that quietly hurt more crew than everything else combined: lifting, slipping, and falling. They get ignored because they aren’t frightening, and that’s exactly why they keep filling the injury logs. Treat them with the same seriousness as the loud hazards.

Manual Handling and Ergonomics

Grips, electricians, and set crew move heavy, awkward loads all day: cases, cable, sandbags, flats, dolly track, and stands. Strains and sprains, especially to the back, are the single most common injury on a set by sheer count. The defenses are old and they work: get help for heavy or awkward loads instead of being a hero, lift with the legs and keep the load close to the body, use carts, dollies, hand trucks, and pallet jacks rather than carrying, and break big loads into smaller ones. Keep pathways clear so no one is hauling weight over an obstacle. Repetitive tasks and long static holds wear the body down too, so rotate people through them and build in breaks. None of this is glamorous, and all of it keeps skilled people working instead of injured.

Slips, Trips, and Falls on the Level

A film set is a floor full of cable, a stage lit for the camera rather than for walking, and a crew moving fast in the dark. That combination produces a steady stream of trips and falls. Manage the cable: run it overhead or along walls, ramp or mat it where it crosses a walkway, and tape it down. Light the paths people actually use, mark changes in level and trip hazards, keep walkways and exits clear, and clean up spills and debris the moment they appear. Good housekeeping isn’t tidiness for its own sake; it’s injury prevention.

Working at Height

Beyond the scaffolding covered later in this chapter, crew work at height constantly: on ladders, in scissor lifts and articulating boom lifts, on catwalks, greenbeds, and lighting perms. Falls from these are among the most serious injuries on a set that have nothing to do with stunts, and they’re preventable. The single most important habit is to use the right access equipment for the job, set it up the way the manufacturer requires, and never improvise a substitute. A few specifics, so you can spot trouble even in gear you don’t operate yourself:

• Ladders. Inspect before use, set them on firm, level ground at the correct angle, and have them footed or tied off when tall. Don’t overreach, don’t stand on the top cap or top step, and keep three points of contact. A ladder is for brief work, not a place to spend an hour with both hands full.
• Scissor lifts. These rise straight up, so the danger is tipping and falling. Use them on firm, level ground, deploy any leveling or stabilizing legs the machine has, and never exceed the rated load or the marked slope. Keep the guardrails up and the gate closed, stay inside the platform with feet on the deck, and never climb or lean out over the rails. Don’t move a raised lift over rough ground, and watch for overhead obstructions and power lines on the way up.
• Boom lifts and Condors. An articulating boom lift, often called a Condor on a film set, swings a basket out on an arm, which makes it far more prone to tipping than a scissor lift. It has to sit on ground that can carry the load, be leveled, and have its outriggers or extension legs fully deployed and pinned before anyone goes up. Because the basket can throw an occupant out if the boom drops or the machine lurches, everyone in a boom lift wears a full-body harness with a lanyard clipped to the manufacturer’s designated anchor point inside the basket, not to the rail and not to a nearby structure. Stay on the platform floor, don’t stand on planks or ladders to gain extra height, respect the rated capacity, and keep a trained spotter on the ground and a rescue plan in case the operator is hurt or stranded aloft.

For all of it: where someone is exposed to a fall, use guardrails or a personal fall-arrest system; make sure anyone working aloft has been trained, and for lifts certified to run that specific machine; and remember that a dropped tool hurts the people below as badly as a fall hurts the person above, so secure everything and keep the ground beneath cleared and controlled.

Maintaining a Drug-Free Workplace

Most sets have, and should enforce, a strict policy of maintaining a drug-free workplace and workforce.

All staff members may be subjected to random unannounced drug testing.

The unlawful manufacture, distribution, dispensing, possession, or use of a controlled substance is prohibited in the workplace, and any violation of this policy should result in immediate termination. Many drugs persist in the body for days or weeks, and some drugs create permanent changes in the brain. If you use illegal recreational drugs, you shouldn’t be on set, and if you are found to be a user of illegal drugs you should not be assigned to the set.

Drug abuse in the workplace is dangerous to the user, the crew, the client, and the public.

Employers may require satisfactory participation in a drug-abuse-assistance or rehabilitation program as a condition of continued employment for workers suffering from addiction.

Communicable Disease and the Crew

On a lot of ordinary days the most dangerous thing on the set is the person standing next to you, if that person showed up sick. A film set is close quarters, long hours, shared radios and tools, shared food, recycled air in trucks and on stages, and a hundred people who often can’t keep any distance from each other for sixteen hours at a stretch. It is a nearly perfect machine for turning one contagious person into thirty. I’ve watched a single stomach virus or flu run through a unit the same way the foodborne illness ran through the crew in India: by the end of the week a big share of the people are down, the schedule is wrecked, and some of the people still working are sick enough to be a hazard at the jobs they’re doing.

The culture of this business pushes exactly the wrong way. The show must go on, nobody wants to be the one who called in sick, and a day-player who fears not being hired again will drag themselves onto set with a fever rather than lose the day. That instinct, admirable as it feels, is how the outbreak starts. The professional standard is the same one we apply to the drug-free workplace: if you’re contagious, you don’t belong on set, and if you show up contagious you should be sent home. The close-contact rules that apply to exotic disease on a foreign location apply just as much to an ordinary cold or stomach bug on a domestic stage.

The production carries the other half of this. It has to make staying home the safe choice rather than the punished one: build enough depth and cross-training that one person’s absence doesn’t sink the day, don’t penalize people for reporting illness, provide hand-washing and sanitizing stations and plenty of clean water, keep sick crew away from craft services and shared gear, and during a serious outbreak be willing to test, to separate work groups, and to send people home. None of this is new. It’s the same logic as every other hazard in this book: a foreseeable harm, a known set of precautions, and a choice between taking them in advance or paying for them later.

Bloodborne Pathogens

Some crew can be exposed to other people’s blood and body fluids: the set medics above all, but also special-makeup-effects artists, anyone who handles a real injury, and anyone working with needles or sharps. Those fluids can carry hepatitis and other infections. The hazard is small in volume and large in consequence, and it’s easy to plan for. Treat all blood and body fluids as potentially infectious. Provide and use barrier protection: gloves at a minimum, plus eye and face protection where splashing is possible. Keep a sharps container for needles and blades, and never recap a needle by hand. Clean and disinfect contaminated surfaces, bag contaminated waste properly, and wash thoroughly after any contact. If someone is exposed, treat it as a medical matter that same day, with evaluation and follow-up, not something to wipe off and forget. A production that uses real blood effects, prosthetics, or live medical needles should have a written plan and the supplies on hand before the day it needs them.

Psychological Safety and Conduct on Set

Not every hazard on a set is physical. A workplace where people are harassed, bullied, demeaned, or frightened isn’t just unpleasant, it’s less safe, because people who feel threatened or humiliated don’t speak up about the rigging, the gun, or the lift, and speaking up is the foundation of everything in this book. A culture of injury prevention and a culture of basic respect are the same culture. Harassment and discrimination should be treated as the serious workplace hazards they are, with a clear policy, a way to report without fear of retaliation, and consequences that actually follow.

Mental health and wellbeing belong here too. Long hours, high pressure, isolation on location, and exposure to disturbing material all take a toll, and exhausted, overwhelmed people make more mistakes. Treating crew like people, with reasonable hours, real breaks, and support when the work is hard, is part of running a safe set, not a favor.

Scenes involving nudity or simulated sex deserve their own protections, and the industry now uses an intimacy coordinator: a trained professional who plans and choreographs these scenes, confirms consent and boundaries in advance, and looks out for the performers the same way a stunt coordinator looks out for someone taking a fall. Closed sets, clear agreements about what will and won’t happen on camera, and modesty garments and barriers are all standard. The principle is the same one that runs through the rest of this book: the difficult thing is planned in advance, one qualified person is responsible for it, and any performer can stop at any time without penalty.

Fatigue, Long Hours, and the Drive Home

Film schedules run long, and fatigue is a genuine safety hazard, not a test of toughness. A tired crew member has slower reactions, worse judgment, and a shorter fuse, and on a set full of moving equipment, electricity, fire, and height, that’s the same impairment we refuse to tolerate from drugs or alcohol. Long days, short turnaround between wrap and the next call, and a culture that prizes pushing through all stack the deck against rest.

The most dangerous part of a long day is often the part that happens off the clock: the drive home. People have died falling asleep at the wheel after a brutal shoot, and it’s one of the most preventable fatalities in this business. Build reasonable limits on the length of the day, and protect the turnaround so people actually sleep. Watch the crew for the signs of exhaustion the same way you watch a horse or a stunt performer for stress, and give people permission to say they’re too tired to continue safely. When someone is too tired to drive, the production should arrange a ride or a place to sleep rather than send them onto the road. A few hours of someone’s overtime is cheaper than a funeral, and the math has never once come out the other way.

Motor Vehicle Safety

Pre-Flight

Arrive at base camp at least one hour before departure time to location.

Before leaving base camp, do the following to make sure the right equipment is on board, that travel is safe, and that you reach the location on time.

Ensure Vehicle is in Good Working Order

This includes a basic inspection and a checklist covering:

• Inspection sticker
• Registration sticker
• Oil change date sticker
• Oil level
• Fuel level
• Brake fluid
• Radiator fluid
• Battery and terminal condition
• Tire wear
• Tire pressure
• Check brake lights
• Check turn signals
• Check brake function
• Check horn

Contents

• Spare tire, inflated
• Jack
• Working flashlight
• First aid kit
• Jumper cables
• Drinking water

If towing an air compressor or trailer, inspect towing equipment: lights, chains, lighting connections, etc.

Download clear directions to the location, and to the nearest hospital. Print them if you can. Your phone might not work when you need it most.

Driving Policies

• Drive with lights on at all times. Remember to turn lights off when exiting the vehicle.
• Texting while driving should not be permitted at any time.
• Talking on the phone while driving should be restricted to communications vital to and related to the current job.
• Unforeseen things happen during travel. For this reason, keep rain gear, a blanket, a jacket, gloves, spare water and food, and a charged cell phone with you when traveling.
• Be aware of the condition of your vehicle, weather, and road conditions. Drive to conditions.
• In case of a breakdown, get safely off the road immediately if at all possible. Turn on flashers. If you can safely inspect the vehicle, do so, and call for help. Do not leave the vehicle to go for help. Doing so would make you vulnerable to all manner of predators.
• Give yourself an ample amount of travel time to safely arrive at your destination. Allow time to change a tire, have a fender bender, etc. Arrive at least 30 minutes before you are expected on site. If something prevents you from being early, call and let someone know when you expect to arrive.

Operation of Vehicles

Vehicles including cars, trucks, helicopters, and boats are common on film sets. Hazards include traffic collisions, parking issues, and refueling risks. Safety measures for refueling were mentioned earlier, and vehicle stunts will be discussed in later chapters.

• Seat belts must be worn where provided (per OSHA).
• Only licensed individuals should operate vehicles.
• Driving in challenging conditions like deserts should be done by experienced drivers.

Parking

Vehicles must not obstruct fire hydrants, emergency access, or exits.

• Work with the local fire department to establish safe parking.
• Park vehicles at least 20 feet away from tents and 100 feet from areas with pyrotechnics.

Boat Safety Guidelines

When working with boats, the safety of the cast, crew, and equipment comes first.

1. Pre-Filming Preparations

• Risk assessment. Conduct a detailed risk assessment of the location, boat, and planned stunts or activities. Identify hazards, such as water depth, weather conditions, tides, and proximity to other vessels or structures.
• Permits and approvals. Secure necessary permits from local maritime authorities and ensure compliance with maritime laws and regulations.
• Safety training. All crew, including cast members who will be on the boat, should undergo basic boat safety training. This includes understanding how to use life jackets, safety protocols, and emergency procedures.
• Weather monitoring. Constantly monitor weather reports and ensure a backup plan in case of sudden changes in conditions.
• Health and first aid. Ensure the presence of medical personnel and have first-aid kits on board. Boats should also have life rafts and other safety gear accessible.
• Certified operators. Ensure the boat is operated by a licensed and experienced captain. All crew operating near the water should have maritime experience if possible.

2. Safety Gear

• Life jackets. All individuals on the boat, including cast members, should wear U.S. Coast Guard-approved life jackets at all times, especially when shooting near open water.
• Emergency communication. Equip the boat with functioning radios or satellite phones for emergency communication with shore or rescue services.
• Fire extinguishers. Have fire extinguishers on board that are easily accessible and checked regularly.
• Flotation devices and rescue equipment. Include throw rings, life rafts, and other emergency flotation devices that can be deployed quickly if needed.
• Kill switches. Ensure boats have kill switches (automatic shutoff switches) for engines to prevent incidents in case the operator falls overboard.

3. During Filming

• Stunt coordination. If stunts are involved, use professional stunt coordinators with experience in marine environments. Test all stunts and boat maneuvers in controlled environments before actual filming.
• Controlled movement. Boats should move slowly and cautiously when near other boats or filming equipment. Establish clear communication between the boat operator and the director or assistant director regarding all movements.
• Safe filming zones. Ensure designated filming zones where cast and crew are not exposed to unnecessary risks, such as working near propellers or unstable edges.
• On-deck protocol. Limit the number of people on deck to essential crew and cast. No one should stand near the edges of the boat unless required for a scene.
• Hydration and sun protection. Keep the crew hydrated and protected from sun exposure, especially when filming for extended periods. Dehydration and sunstroke can become risks during long shoots at sea.

4. Post-Filming Protocol

• Check for injuries. Conduct a quick health check on all cast and crew involved in the water scenes to ensure no injuries or illnesses have been overlooked.
• Equipment check. After shooting, inspect all equipment used on the boat (including cameras and electrical gear) for water damage or malfunction.
• Clean up. Ensure no waste or equipment is left in the water. Film productions must follow environmental regulations to prevent pollution.

5. Emergency Preparedness

• Evacuation plan. Have a clear evacuation plan in case of emergencies, such as engine failure, fires, or severe weather. Ensure that everyone knows the evacuation procedures.
• First-aid response. In case of an emergency, make sure first-aid procedures are known, and crew members are equipped to handle injuries or incidents.
• Rescue coordination. Plan for rescue operations in advance, particularly if filming far from the shore. Have a designated point of contact for rescue services.

Underwater and Diving Work

Underwater filming adds a hazard the rest of the set never faces: the people doing it can’t breathe where they’re working, and the water itself can hurt them in ways that aren’t obvious from the surface. Diving for film is professional, commercial-grade work, not recreation, and it calls for certified divers, a dive supervisor, redundant air supplies, and safety divers whose only job is to watch the working divers and the performers. Anyone going underwater on camera, including actors, should be trained and comfortable, and a qualified diver should be assigned to each performer who isn’t.

The specific dangers are worth knowing even for crew who stay dry, because they’re easy to underestimate from the deck:

• Drowning and entrapment. Costumes, rigging, sets, and debris can snag a diver or a performer underwater, and panic does the rest. Underwater sets need clear escape routes, cutting tools, and divers positioned to free anyone who gets caught.
• Decompression sickness. On deeper or longer dives, nitrogen dissolves into the body under pressure and forms damaging bubbles if the diver surfaces too fast. This is decompression sickness, often called the bends, and it can cripple or kill hours after the dive has ended. It’s prevented by controlling depth and time, ascending slowly with planned stops, and not flying or going to altitude too soon afterward. Treatment requires a recompression chamber, so the location of the nearest one is part of the dive plan.
• Air problems. Running out of air, breathing-gas contamination, and equipment failure are all managed with redundant supplies, well-maintained gear, and divers who never work alone.
• Cold and currents. Cold water saps strength and judgment fast and leads to hypothermia, and currents, surge, and low visibility can sweep a diver off the set or into a hazard. Exposure suits, tethers where appropriate, and hard limits on time in the water all apply.
• Marine life. On open-water shoots the wildlife is a real factor, from jellyfish stings and coral cuts that get infected to bites from sharks or other animals, and the occasional venomous creature. The animal chapter’s logic applies here too: know what lives in the water you’re filming in, keep a qualified person watching, and have the matching first aid and antivenin plan ready before anyone gets in.

As with every hazardous activity in this book, the honest first question is whether the shot needs real divers in deep water at all, or whether a tank, shallow water, a dry-for-wet setup, or computer-generated imagery can deliver it with far less risk.

Cameras

Filming sometimes requires placing the camera crew in hazardous locations, on cranes, moving vehicles, or even helicopters. Follow the procedures below.

Camera Cranes

Camera cranes can reach great heights and carry risks like falls, high winds, or collapse.

• Cranes must meet OSHA regulations.
• Only trained grips should handle crane setup, and cranes should be stabilized on any surface to prevent tipping or collapse.

Insert Camera Cars

When filming moving vehicles, cameras mounted directly on cars pose risks to operators. Insert camera cars, engineered specifically for filming, are safer alternatives. Safety checks should be conducted before and after each run, and the crew should be kept to a minimum during filming.

Electrical and Lighting Equipment

On location, electrical and lighting equipment can generate heat and sparks, which increase fire risk. Power overloads, inadequate wiring, or deteriorated cables can lead to electrical shock. Here are some key precautions.

Power and Distribution System

• All electrical work must be performed by licensed electricians.
• Electrical equipment must be grounded, and cables should be inspected regularly for wear.
• Ensure cables are routed and taped down to avoid tripping hazards.

Lights

• Proper grounding is required for all lighting equipment.
• Lights should be turned off and disconnected from power before any maintenance.
• High-intensity lamps should be shielded, and personnel should be warned about ultraviolet radiation exposure from arc-type lamps.

Overhead Power Lines

Contact with overhead power lines is one of the deadliest electrical hazards on a set, and it usually happens through something tall and metal: a crane, a Condor or scissor lift, a scaffold tower, an aluminum ladder, or a camera jib raised without anyone looking up. Electricity can also arc to equipment that merely gets close, without touching. Before anything tall goes up outdoors, look up, identify every line, and keep equipment and people well clear of it; a common rule of thumb is at least ten feet, and more for higher voltages. If work truly must happen near lines, the lines should be de-energized, insulated, or moved by the utility, and a dedicated spotter should watch the clearance the whole time. Anyone, from any department, who sees a boom or a ladder drifting toward a wire should call a stop immediately.

Energy Control and Lockout/Tagout

Before anyone services, repairs, or reaches into powered equipment, the energy that drives it has to be turned off and secured so it can’t come back on while a hand is inside. This is called lockout/tagout: the power is shut off, physically locked in the off position, and tagged so no one restores it by mistake. It applies to electrical gear, but also to anything that can move or release stored energy, including motors, hydraulics, pneumatics, and spring-loaded mechanisms. The person doing the work holds the lock. A great many serious injuries come from a machine that someone switched back on at the wrong moment, and lockout/tagout exists to make that impossible.

Ground Faults and Water

Electricity and water are a lethal combination, and film sets put them together constantly: rain effects, tank work, wet streets, fog, and washdowns near live cable and lights. Use ground-fault circuit interrupters, which cut the power in a fraction of a second when current leaks to ground, on any circuit near moisture, and keep connections up off wet ground. Inspect cable for damaged insulation, never run power through standing water, and treat any tingle or shock, however small, as a serious warning rather than a nuisance. When a water effect and electrical equipment have to share a space, a qualified electrician should design and sign off on the setup.

Lasers and High-Intensity Light

Lasers used for effects and concert-style lighting, along with the brightest film lamps, can injure eyes and skin in ways that aren’t obvious until afterward. A laser bright enough to read on camera can burn the retina of anyone who looks into the beam or a reflection of it, sometimes permanently, and the damage is painless as it happens. Laser effects should be designed and run by a qualified laser operator, aimed and contained so the beams stay above head height and away from people and reflective surfaces, and never pointed at cast, crew, or audience. Intense conventional lighting carries its own hazard: arc-type and other high-output lamps emit ultraviolet radiation that burns eyes and skin like sunburn, so they’re shielded and the people near them are warned and protected. Anyone who feels eye pain, sees spots, or gets a “sunburn” indoors after a lighting day should treat it as an injury and report it.

Scaffolding

Scaffolding is often used for mounting cameras and lighting. The key recommendations for scaffolding safety are:

• Rolling scaffolds must have locking capabilities, and the path must be controlled.
• Cameras and equipment should be securely fastened to the scaffold.
• High winds can cause scaffolding to become dangerous; personnel should be removed if necessary.

Rigging

The key rigging guidelines below protect crew members, performers, and equipment.

1. Use Qualified Personnel

Only trained and experienced riggers should handle rigging equipment. Ensure the crew understands the specific needs and risks involved in rigging for film production. Certification and compliance with local safety regulations are essential.

2. Inspect All Equipment Before Use

• Rigging gear, including ropes, harnesses, shackles, and hoists, must be inspected before each use. Look for wear, fraying, or corrosion, and replace any compromised gear immediately.
• Verify that equipment is rated for the load being lifted and is within its maximum working capacity.

3. Create a Clear Chain of Command

• Establish clear communication and a chain of command. The rigging coordinator or key grip should oversee all rigging operations, and everyone involved should understand their specific roles.
• Use radios or hand signals to ensure clear communication between riggers and others involved in lifting or suspending equipment.

4. Secure the Work Area

• Rope off the area beneath the rigging to prevent unauthorized personnel from entering the danger zone, using cones and caution tape. This area should remain off-limits to nonessential crew during rigging operations.
• Post signs and alert crew members to the risks of falling objects.

5. Use Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment

• All rigging personnel should wear proper personal protective equipment, including hard hats, gloves, safety harnesses, and steel-toe boots.
• If working at heights, fall-protection gear such as safety harnesses and lanyards must be used and properly secured to anchor points.

6. Double-Check All Anchors and Connections

• Ensure that all anchor points are strong enough to support the intended load. Verify that carabiners, shackles, and other connecting equipment are properly fastened and locked.
• All knots and connections should be tied or secured by a qualified rigger.

7. Test Load Before Lifting

• Perform a test lift before the full operation to check if the load is balanced and secure. Slowly lift the object to verify that all rigging points are evenly distributed and there is no unexpected movement.
• Test the equipment under controlled conditions to ensure it can handle the weight safely.

8. Never Stand Under a Load

• No one should ever stand directly beneath a load that is being lifted or suspended. Even if the rigging appears secure, unexpected failures can occur.
• Always keep personnel clear of the load path during lifting or lowering operations.

9. Monitor Environmental Conditions

• Wind, rain, and other environmental conditions can affect rigging safety. Do not perform rigging work during high winds or other hazardous weather conditions that can compromise safety.
• Ensure proper lighting is available during night operations to maintain visibility for the crew.

10. Maintain Load Control

• Always use appropriate tools such as taglines (guide ropes) to control swinging or rotating loads while lifting or positioning them.
• Maintain slow, controlled movements to reduce the risk of instability in the rigged load.

11. Have an Emergency Plan

In case of an incident, ensure there is an emergency plan in place, including immediate communication with medics and first responders. All rigging personnel should be briefed on this plan before the rigging operation begins.

12. Perform Regular Maintenance on Rigging Gear

All rigging equipment should undergo regular maintenance and testing in compliance with industry standards and manufacturer guidelines. Keep detailed records of inspections and maintenance.

Confined Spaces and Oxygen Displacement

A confined space is any area not designed for people to occupy that has limited entry and exit and poor natural ventilation: tanks, tunnels, pits, ship holds, sewers, large ducts, and the like. The hidden killer in these spaces is the air itself. It can hold too little oxygen, or it can fill with toxic or flammable gas, and a person who walks in feels fine right up until they collapse. Worse, the natural instinct to rush in and pull out a downed coworker has killed many would-be rescuers in the same space. Confined spaces should be tested for breathable air before entry, ventilated, attended by someone stationed outside, and entered only with a plan and the right equipment. No one should ever enter a confined space to rescue someone without proper breathing gear, no matter how urgent it feels.

The same oxygen-displacement danger shows up in the open, through atmospheric effects. The fog and low-lying smoke covered in Chapter 7 are often made with carbon dioxide, dry ice, or liquid nitrogen, all of which push breathable air out of low spots: pits, trenches, basements, sunken sets, and the floor itself. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and pools where it can’t be seen. People have been overcome by fog effects in low areas without ever realizing the air had gone bad. When heavy fog and a low or enclosed space meet, monitor the air, ventilate, and keep people out of the pockets where the gas collects.

Hearing Conservation

Hearing loss from loud sound is permanent, it accumulates quietly over a career, and it’s completely preventable. Film sets are loud: blank gunfire, pyrotechnics, explosions, engines, generators, power tools, and crowd and concert work all reach levels that damage hearing, sometimes from a single exposure. Treat hearing protection the way you treat eye protection. Provide and wear earplugs or earmuffs around loud work, double up with plugs and muffs together for gunfire and pyrotechnics, and warn everyone in earshot before a loud event so no one is caught unprotected. The people who most need protection are often the ones standing nearby who aren’t running the effect, so the warning has to reach the whole area and not just the specialists.

Dressing, Costumes, and Makeup

Dressing Rooms

Dressing rooms, whether in studios or on location, must have proper ventilation and temperature control. Hair sprays and aerosols should not be used in dressing rooms, and smoking should be prohibited.

Costumes

Costumes, especially those made for special effects or stunts, should be fire-resistant and designed for easy escape. Heat and cold stress can also be concerns, and breaks should be provided as needed.

Makeup

Makeup can cause skin irritation, allergies, or more serious health problems. Makeup shared between performers poses risks of infections, so personal makeup is recommended, along with good hygiene practices like using disposable brushes and sanitizing tools between uses.

Environmental Hazards

Heat Stress

Prolonged exposure to high heat can cause heat-related illnesses like heat stroke, exhaustion, and cramps. Breaks, acclimatization, and adequate hydration are key to preventing heat stress. If working in extreme heat, cool rest areas and medical staff should be available.

Cold Stress

In cold environments, hypothermia and frostbite are serious risks. Layered clothing, warm-up breaks, and emergency procedures for water immersion are essential.

Water Hazards

Filming in water, especially cold or fast-moving water, poses risks of drowning, entrapment, and hypothermia. Safety measures include requiring all personnel to know how to swim and wearing appropriate water-safety gear. Water may hold obvious dangers like sharks or snakes, but also bacteria that can cause life-threatening illness, and toxic chemicals. Check for all of these before going near it.

Film Fire / Life Safety Inspection Checklist

A thorough checklist helps confirm that all fire and life-safety measures are in place on set. This includes checking for clear access routes, proper storage of flammable materials, and availability of fire extinguishers.

Chapter 6

Procedures for High-Risk Situations

How to plan a dangerous scene before it ever rolls camera, identifying hazards, assigning authority, and coordinating with emergency services.

For high-risk activities like stunts, explosions, or filming in hazardous environments, safety is non-negotiable. Planning is key. Everything must be prepped ahead of time and executed with strict safety procedures in place.

Pre-Planning

Planning for high-risk scenes involves two main steps: reviewing the script for potential hazards and figuring out the safest way to film the scene.

Identifying Potential Hazards

A safety director or expert with experience in film production hazards should review the script to spot any dangerous scenes. These can include risky locations, explosions, special effects like fog or smoke, car and helicopter sequences, underwater stunts, falls, animal involvement, or precarious camera positions. The expert should be involved early on in production discussions to suggest safe ways to execute potentially dangerous scenes. Ideally, this happens before final decisions on location or the execution of high-risk shots.

Choosing the Safest Option

The guiding question should always be: “Is there a safer way to do this without sacrificing creativity?” Too often, a drive for realism leads to unnecessary risks and incidents. For example, in 1989, producer-director Toby Halicki was killed when a water tower collapsed unexpectedly during a special effect for Gone in 60 Seconds II. The effect could have been achieved just as convincingly with a model, without putting anyone at risk. Similarly, helicopter scenes, which used to rely on special effects, are now often filmed live, leading to preventable incidents. Advances in computer simulations make it easier than ever to reduce risks while maintaining realism.

In other cases, hazardous camera angles or locations might put the crew in danger. Think about simulating some of these shots or adjusting camera positions to keep everyone safe.

Planning Safe Procedures

Once a hazardous scene is identified, several key questions need to be answered to develop safe procedures: What are the actual risks? Who is in charge? Who is performing the scene? What are the risks to the camera crew? What safety measures are needed? Are there outside agencies that should be involved?

Once the safety procedures are mapped out, they should be reviewed by a committee of stunt and special-effects experts to ensure the plan is solid.

Risk Evaluation

The next step is evaluating the level of risk in a given scene. How severe is the hazard, who could be injured, and what are the possible outcomes?

For example, falling down a flight of stairs is a higher risk than falling on a flat surface and should be treated as a stunt, because the chance of serious injury or death is greater. Even a simple fall can result in minor injuries like sprains or bruises, but the level of risk is much lower than a fall involving height.

In a car-chase scene, the drivers and passengers are obviously at high risk of serious injury or fatality, but don’t forget the background actors in traffic; they’re at risk too. Camera crew members might also be in danger if they’re positioned too close to the action. During the 1986 filming of The Wraith, cameraman Bruce Ingram died, and seven others were injured when a stunt car crashed into them.

After assessing the risks, you can develop safety procedures to minimize the danger.

Who’s in Charge?

Having a clear chain of command is critical. The safety director oversees the entire film set, but scenes involving special expertise, like stunts or special effects, require specialists, such as stunt coordinators, animal handlers, or underwater divers, who take charge of safety for their respective areas. These specialists should have the right certifications and should directly handle the safety planning for their scenes.

On set, the expert has final say on whether the scene is safe enough to proceed. The safety director, producer, director, and union reps should all have the authority to stop the scene if they believe it’s too dangerous. Any actor or crew member can refuse to participate in a scene they believe is unsafe, without needing to provide a reason. The scene should only move forward when all safety concerns have been addressed.

Experts like stunt coordinators or animal handlers should not perform in the scene themselves. It’s impossible to properly oversee safety if they are actively involved in the action.

Who’s Involved?

Everyone in the scene needs to be qualified for the risks involved. For instance, in a car chase, only experienced stunt drivers should be behind the wheel. Panic or error from an inexperienced driver could be disastrous. Similarly, all passengers in the stunt cars should be trained stunt performers.

Actors should never be asked to perform stunts that put them at high risk of injury, and extras should certainly never be in dangerous action scenes. Some action sequences, like stage fights, can be safely performed by actors, but only if they’ve been trained by a professional stage combat director. Training should cover falls, firearm use, and any other relevant safety protocols.

When a camera crew is involved in hazardous scenes, like filming from cliffs or helicopters, they too must be trained in using safety equipment.

Child Performers

Working with child actors adds another layer of responsibility. Laws around child labor vary by state, but many require permits for children under 16. New York, for example, mandates a permit for any child performer and limits the activities they can be involved in. Child actors must be protected from psychological trauma, fatigue, and physically unsafe conditions. For example, the two Vietnamese children killed during the filming of Twilight Zone: The Movie should never have been exposed to the pyrotechnics that caused their deaths.

Coordinating with Emergency Services

In case of unforeseen incidents, you need to coordinate with local emergency services like the fire department, police, and medical teams. If you’re dealing with fire or explosion scenes, the local fire department might require a special permit and could mandate having a fire crew on standby. Similarly, police permits are often required when filming on public streets for crowd and traffic control. In the case of a serious incident, you’ll need to know the location of the nearest hospital or emergency service center.

Standard Procedures

For all hazardous scenes, here are some general safety guidelines:

• Inform everyone involved that the scene will include dangerous activities with trained professionals. Include this info on the call sheet.
• No children under 16 should be involved in hazardous situations.
• Detailed safety procedures should be written down and shared with all participants well before filming. These should cover the scene description, safety measures, and emergency protocols.
• Allow enough pre-production time to train actors or rehearse complicated scenes. Make sure you have time to rig and test equipment before the shoot.
• Hold a safety briefing just before filming, and include a rehearsal to make sure everyone understands their role and the safety precautions.
• If any changes occur, hold another meeting to confirm understanding and agreement on new procedures.
• Nonessential personnel should be kept clear of the danger zone.
• Protect the camera crew with shields, safety belts, or respirators as needed.
• Ensure communication between safety coordinators and key personnel during filming, especially for stunts, special effects, and scenes involving helicopters or airplanes.
• Limit the number of takes to avoid fatigue, which can lead to incidents.
• All incidents must be reported and investigated by an independent committee.

Chapter 7

Special Effects

Pyrotechnics, fire, fog and smoke, and firearms, the four families of effects that demand the most discipline.

In film production, special effects let us create scenes that would otherwise be too dangerous, expensive, or just impossible to achieve. From explosions and gunfire to rain and wind, special effects play a huge role in bringing stories to life. This chapter dives into the potential hazards of various special effects and the precautions that need to be taken to keep everyone safe on set.

We’ll focus on effects like pyrotechnics, fire, and firearms, areas with significant health and safety concerns. These guidelines are based on established safety bulletins from the Industry-Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee for the motion picture and TV industry, along with Ontario’s Film and Television Industry safety guidelines.

Pyrotechnics

Pyrotechnics are used for creating explosions, fires, smoke, and loud concussions. They involve materials like flash powder, gunpowder, and black powder, which can be found in effects like bullet hits, blank cartridges, and smoke pots. The main safety issues include unintentional detonation, using too much explosive material, and causing unintended fires. On top of that, pyrotechnics operators need to be highly trained and licensed, as the use of explosives is regulated by federal, state, and local authorities.

Regulations

The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) regulates explosives, and the Department of Transportation handles their classification and transport. Pyrotechnicians must have federal and state licenses to buy, sell, and use explosives in film production, although requirements for obtaining these licenses can vary by state. For instance, in California, pyrotechnicians are licensed by the State Fire Marshal, with different classes for different types of effects. Cities like New York have additional requirements, including written tests and apprenticeships.

Types of Pyrotechnic Materials

Pyrotechnic materials are classified as Class A (high explosives), Class B (low explosives), and Class C (common fireworks). Class B materials, like black powder and safety fuses, will burn but won’t explode unless confined. Pyrotechnic effects are created by mixing oxidizers (like potassium nitrate or perchlorate) with fuels (such as charcoal or metals like magnesium). It’s critical to store these materials properly since many oxidizers can react with organic materials and become dangerous.

Storage and Use

Pyrotechnic materials must be transported according to Department of Transportation regulations, and stored in approved magazines. Indoors, only small amounts of explosives should be stored in day-boxes, and with proper oversight. Smoking and open flames are prohibited near explosives storage, and spark-proof tools must be used. On set, all personnel must be briefed before any pyrotechnics are used, including a dry run of the scene with emergency procedures outlined.

Fireworks Show, A Planning Checklist

Before setting up a fireworks show, double-check the gear package and make sure you have everything required. Many items on the list are required by law.

Fireworks Equipment Checklist

• Fireworks (cakes and/or mortars)
• Finale tubes (buckets or rails)
• Clamps
• Quickmatch
• Aluminum foil
• Fire extinguishers (CO₂ or dry chem, AND water), at least 2 of each
• Turnout coats (one for each team member)
• Flashlights, at least one per team member, with extra bulbs and batteries
• Traffic safety cones
• Duct tape
• Hundreds of feet of caution tape
• Large garbage bags
• Leaf rake
• Broom
• Copy of permit
• Emergency numbers

Tools and Personal Protective Equipment

• TS 4000
• Safety goggles (one pair for each team member)
• Hearing protection (one pair for each team member)
• Leather gloves (one pair for each team member)

Procedures

1. On arrival, the lead pyrotechnician will determine the Firing Area and Safe Zone with the director, the first assistant director, the director of photography, or the authority having jurisdiction.
2. Install cones and caution tape to keep out non-pyro crew members. These must be at least 140 feet from the firing area.
3. Place extinguishers at “Ready Points” just inside the firing area, where they can be easily seen. Place additional extinguishers near the vehicle and trailer. Attach flashing lights to each fire extinguisher so you can find them at night.
4. Remove the paper tops and fuse guards on the “cakes” that are to be fired, unless directed otherwise.*
5. Arrange fireworks on the ground according to instructions.
6. Pyro crew leader will establish firing order. As this is done, make sure all fuses are faced properly so that all firing is done “on the retreat,” moving away from fired ordnance.
7. Double-check that all fire extinguishers are ready for immediate use in case of fire.
8. Prepare all turnout coats, safety equipment, and torches for firing. Have all safety equipment on your person and stand by for the firing cue.
9. Fire show as directed and rehearsed with pyro crew leader.

*In rainy or wet conditions, paper may be left on cakes. Saran Wrap may be applied to further protect the cakes from water. Use only SARAN® brand; it is non-flammable.

Fireworks Show De-Rigging

1. Use water-filled extinguishers to thoroughly wet down all fired cakes. All boxes should be “Dead Out” before handling or removal.
2. Do an extensive search of the area to locate and extinguish all burning debris and grass fires in the firing area and well beyond. Wind can play a big factor in the amount and direction of falling debris, so be aware of the wind direction at time of firing and pay special attention to this area. Until departure, keep a vigilant eye on the entire area for signs of smoke and/or fire, and do not leave until you are certain the area has been made safe.
3. Recover and correctly load all equipment back into the vehicle.
4. Remove all spent ordnance to a dumpster on site. If no dumpster is available, load the refuse into the vehicle and return it to base camp.

Notes:

• After firing is complete, disconnect all torch heads from tanks and expel remaining propane in the torch head before loading.
• Be extra diligent in searching for and extinguishing ground fires.
• Follow all instructions given by any authority (fire, emergency medical services, police, etc.).
• NEVER play with or attempt to relight any unexploded or partially exploded ordnance. Pay special attention at wet-down that all ordnance is thoroughly soaked and incapable of firing.

Bonfire Safety

Some of these lessons were learned the hard way. The checklist below covers preparation, ignition, and post-shoot procedures, followed by narrative pro tips that elaborate on the why.

Preparation Checklist (Pre-Shoot)

1. Prepare the Bonfire Structure

• Build the fire securely so it won’t collapse.
• Secure logs with steel wire (bailing or electric-fence wire from Home Depot).

2. Gather Necessary Supplies and Safety Equipment

• Bailing wire
• TS4000 torch (or TS8000 if unavailable)
• Two short green propane tanks (keep one indoors as a spare in case of cold temperatures)
• 5 gallons of diesel fuel (in an approved container)

Standby equipment:

• Fire truck with charged line (must be charged before lighting)
• First aid kit with burn dressings on top
• 4 CO₂ extinguishers (2 for you, 2 for a firefighter)
• 2 wet blankets (cotton or wool only)

3. Set Up Fire Perimeter and Crew Safety Zones

• Mark a 10-foot safety perimeter with natural markers (leaves or twigs).
• Have firefighters wet down a 30-foot radius around the fire pit 30 minutes before crew arrival.
• Instruct all crew and cast to maintain a safe distance unless essential.

4. Prepare Wardrobe and Safety Protocols

• Verify all cast clothing is 100% natural fiber (cotton, wool, silk).
• Remind wardrobe department of the natural-fiber requirement and inspect labels before cast dresses.

Conduct a pre-shoot safety talk, including:

• Rule of Toast, burns are permanent.
• Emphasize stopping work if anyone has concerns.
• Ensure only you, firefighters, and essential crew are near the fire.

5. Plan Emergency Responses and Protocols

• Conduct a drop-and-cover drill with cast (12 repetitions per cast member), where they practice dropping flat with hands up.
• Position CO₂ extinguishers near the set.
• Stand at cast member’s head with their feet pointing away when using CO₂ in an emergency.
• Carry two CO₂ extinguishers when approaching a cast member in case one fails.

Bonfire Ignition Checklist (During Shoot)

1. Coordinate with Firefighters

• Ensure a firefighter is spotting while you’re lighting the fire.
• Request an extra turnout coat and wear it during dousing and lighting.

2. Light the Bonfire

• Confirm all crew is ready and in position (“Ready Ready to shoot”).
• Light the bonfire from the bottom on a diesel-wetted spot using the blowtorch.
• Anticipate 5+ minutes for the fire to reach full burn.

3. Monitor Fire and Safety Throughout the Shoot

• Direct actors to use a paper cup with diesel (not gasoline) to intensify the fire, throwing it at the bottom.
• Maintain safety perimeter and ensure actors don’t cross it. Correct them immediately if they do.
• Monitor for signs of clothing ignition and be ready to act.

Post-Shoot Checklist

• Extinguish the fire and clear the site according to safety protocols.
• De-brief crew on any issues or improvements for future shoots.

Bonfire Pro Tips (Narrative Detail)

Ensure the fire is built securely, such that it can’t fall over when burning.

Once it’s built, use steel wire to secure the logs in position. They sell it at Home Depot as electric-fence wire or bailing wire.

To light the bonfire with diesel, you’ll need a blowtorch. Have production get you a TS4000 torch head from Home Depot with a pair of 1-lb bottles of propane.

Get the short green propane bottles, not the tall thin ones, as the shorter bottles are less likely to tip over and get debris in the tip. (The TS8000 torch will work if they don’t stock the 4000.)

You’ll want a 2-pack of the propane tanks so that you can leave one indoors in a warm room while using the other. The cold temps at night can cause the propane to freeze up while you’re using it, so having a warm spare will be helpful.

After using the torch, and after unscrewing it from the tank, fire it again by pressing the trigger. There is usually enough propane left in the head to start a fire unintentionally even after you’ve taken it off the tank.

The bonfire will need a good dousing. Do not douse or light the bonfire until the crew is Ready Ready to shoot. There’s no putting the fire on hold while someone changes a camera battery or does a makeup touchup.

Light the bonfire from the bottom, holding the torch on a diesel-wetted spot until it lights. It will take 5-plus minutes for the fire to become fully involved.

Have one of the firemen spot you while you’re lighting the fire. Ask them in advance to bring you an extra turnout coat, and wear it from dousing to wrap.

Diesel fuel has an extremely low vapor pressure, so it won’t flash over, and is much harder to light than gasoline, which can be explosive. Don’t let anyone use gasoline on the fire, ever.

When the actors need to turn up the fire, have them throw a paper cup with diesel in it onto the fire. They need to throw the entire cup itself, not use the cup to throw the fuel. They must throw it at the bottom of the fire, so it can’t bounce back at them.

When you block the scene in rehearsal, make sure no one gets closer than 10 feet to the fire, and use leaves or twigs on set to mark the safe spot. If an actor crosses the safety mark during filming, yell them back to their mark.

All wardrobe worn by the actors must be 100% natural fibers: cotton, wool, or silk. Nothing else. I mention this to wardrobe in advance, then remind them again the night of, and check the labels before the cast get dressed.

If anything is not right, delay shooting until it’s corrected.

Have the firefighters do a wet-down 30 feet around the fire pit 30 minutes before the crew arrives. Camera crew don’t like having to clean their lenses of water overspray.

Use the CO₂ extinguishers for cast safety. Have 4 of them standing by, 2 by you, and 2 for one of the fire guys.

You watch cast, and the firefighter watches the crew. Camera folks are focused on their monitors and may not notice if their clothing catches fire, especially if the clothing is insulated.

Tell the cast that in the event of an incident, they are to drop flat on their bellies, hands up, and you’ll put them out. Do practice during the day where you yell “(FIRST NAME) DROP NOW” at them, and they go to the “put me out” position. Do the drill at least 12 times with each cast member. When they drop, you run to them from in front of their head.

Additionally have 2 wet blankets in buckets. Cotton or wool only.

Tell the crew before filming that in the event of an incident, “NO ONE GOES NEAR THE ACTORS OR THE FIRE OTHER THAN YOU, ME, OR THE FIREFIGHTERS.” Only essential crew is to be near the fire.

If you need to use the CO₂ extinguishers, use them in short bursts, stopping as soon as the fire is out. They discharge equal amounts of CO₂ gas and liquid CO₂, which will cause frostbite if you use more than you need. Stand by their head, with their feet pointing away from you, so that fire and CO₂ is directed down to their feet and away from their heads. Carry 2 CO₂ bottles toward them as you approach, in case one of them does not work.

There are burn dressing pads in the first aid kit. The pads are in 4x6 white pouches with red writing, and clearly labeled. They contain lidocaine which takes pain away quickly.

Fire

Fire is one of the most common effects in film, whether it’s a simple campfire or a dramatic explosion. While fire can be staged using controlled methods like propane burners or rubber cement, it still poses serious risks. Untrained operators, improper use of flammable materials, or inadequate fire suppression measures can all lead to disaster.

There should ALWAYS be at least one fire extinguisher on site, no matter where you are on set. And it must be the correct fire extinguisher for the fires that are likely to occur, by type and by size.

Regulations

Using fire in special effects requires permits from local fire departments, and operators often need the same licenses as pyrotechnicians. In cities like New York, even lighting a cigarette on set requires a permit. Some insurance companies also impose additional fire safety requirements.

Recommendations

Whenever possible, use simulated fire (like flickering lights) instead of real flames. When fire effects are necessary, follow the same safety measures used for pyrotechnics. Propane tanks should be stored properly, and any fire-producing equipment must be regularly maintained. Fireproof all materials on set, including costumes and props, and make sure there’s always a trained person on standby with firefighting equipment.

Fog and Smoke

Fog and smoke effects have been used for decades, but not all methods are safe. Fog can be created using materials like dry ice or glycol mixtures, but certain types of smoke, like those made from burning zinc chloride, can be toxic and irritate the lungs. High-risk groups, including those with asthma or respiratory conditions, children, and the elderly, are particularly vulnerable to the effects of inhaling fog and smoke.

Types of Fog and Smoke

• Dry ice. One of the safest options, dry ice creates thick, low-lying fog when exposed to air. However, it can displace oxygen in enclosed spaces, creating a suffocation hazard.
• Petroleum distillates. Older fog machines used kerosene or fuel oil, but these cause severe respiratory issues and are also fire hazards.
• Zinc chloride smoke. This produces hydrochloric acid when burned, which is highly dangerous to inhale. Its use is strongly discouraged.
• Glycol fogs. These are safer but still carry risks, especially if overheated. Glycols like ethylene glycol can cause respiratory irritation, and long-term studies on their inhalation haven’t been done.

Recommendations

Always inform the cast and crew when fog or smoke will be used. Use the lowest concentration needed and keep it in place for the shortest time possible. Indoors, provide exhaust ventilation to clear the air between takes. Respirators should be made available, especially for crew working near concentrated fog or smoke.

Firearms

Firearms, including handguns, rifles, and machine guns, are often used on set, sometimes even with live ammunition, though this practice is discouraged. Even with blank ammunition, incidents happen, like the 1984 death of actor Jon-Erik Hexum, who was fatally injured by a blank cartridge. Safety blanks have since been developed to reduce the risk, but proper handling is still essential.

Regulations

Federal and state laws regulate the use of firearms on set. In New York City, for instance, you need permits to use firearms and must notify the police. California requires a pyrotechnics license to use blanks.

Recommendations

Live ammunition should never be used on set. Firearms must be handled by trained experts, and all personnel must be informed in advance when guns are in use. Non-firing replicas should be used for rehearsals, and protective measures (like shields) must be in place for closeup shots.

Firearm Safety

Ammo on the Set

Several types of ammunition can end up on a set, including live rounds, blanks, and dummy rounds. Here’s the composition and purpose of each.

Live Ammo

A cartridge of live ammo consists of 4 components: a brass casing, an impact-sensitive primer, gunpowder, and a bullet.

When a gun fires, a steel firing pin is forcefully driven into the primer. A shock-sensitive chemical in the primer called lead azide then explodes. The explosion ignites the gunpowder. As the gunpowder burns, it turns from a solid into a gas. The gas expands and creates tremendous pressure. The pressure pushes the bullet down the barrel with great speed, and the bullet exits the barrel on its trajectory towards the target.

The purpose of live ammo is to fire a bullet. The bullet is the projectile that leaves the gun and impacts the target.

Blank Ammo

Blank ammo consists of a casing, a primer, and gunpowder, but no bullet. A piece of lightweight wadding (paper or foam) is used to hold the gunpowder in place. In some cases the powder is held in place by crimping the metal closed at the front of the casing.

Crimped blanks create a potential danger of the crimped metal breaking loose when fired, and causing an injury.

The purpose of blank ammo is to create the appearance that a gun was fired, by issuing muzzle flash, smoke, and noise from a gun, without bullets.

Dummy Rounds

A dummy round consists of an inert primer, a casing, and a bullet, but no gunpowder.

The primer can be rendered inert by drilling a hole in it, or by heating it until the lead azide detonates, before it is inserted into the casing.

The purpose of a dummy round is to create the appearance of a live round, without the danger of live ammo. To distinguish live rounds from dummy rounds, the casing of a dummy round has holes drilled into it.

Steel BBs are also placed in the casing, before seating the bullet, so that shaking the round gives an audible confirmation that it isn’t a live round. Using a “shake test,” you can hear that a round is a dummy round. You can literally be blind, and still distinguish live rounds from dummy rounds, by shaking them.

How Blanks and Dummy Rounds Can Kill

To make the loud bang and muzzle flash of live gunfire, blanks discharge hot, flaming gases when fired.

These gases come out of the muzzle of a firearm with tremendous speed and pressure. At close range, this pressure can damage living tissue, and even bone.

In the case of Jon-Erik Hexum, the actor, while joking around, placed the muzzle of a pistol, loaded with blanks, against the side of his head, and pressed the trigger. The high-pressure gases coming out of the muzzle applied so much force to the side of his head that a section of his skull was broken loose and forced into his brain, killing him.

In Brandon Lee’s death, a revolver was loaded with dummy rounds. Unfortunately, when the dummy rounds were removed, a bullet, which had not been properly seated into the casing, came loose from the casing and remained, unnoticed, within a chamber in the cylinder of the gun. When the gun was subsequently loaded with blanks, and a blank was loaded into a chamber that contained a bullet, a complete live cartridge was effectively created, without the knowledge of the stand-in armorer. (The armorer had briefly left the set, and left his wife to handle the firearms until he got back.) When the blank behind the lodged bullet was fired, the energy from the blank forced the bullet out of the gun with enough force to kill Brandon.

These tragedies highlight the need for experience and vigilance in an armorer. They have to be aware of every possible danger that can arise from the handling of firearms, and must remain constantly watchful to ensure that these dangers are properly avoided.

Given that these deaths arose from the use of blanks and dummy rounds, they must be handled, managed, and supervised with the same degree of care as when working with live ammo.

Again, ammo aside, both of these tragedies could have been prevented if the simple rule: “Never allow a gun to point at anything you don’t want to see destroyed”, had been observed.

Ammo Differentiation Table

Universal Gun Safety Rules

These rules apply at all times, in all places, under all conditions, even during a real gunfight. It is not possible to unintentionally kill someone with a firearm without violating at least one of these rules.

Movie-Set Gun Safety Advice

The incident that claimed the life of Halyna Hutchins was an avoidable tragedy caused by a series of departures from the proven gun-handling and filmmaking safety practices used worldwide. Period.

Being on a movie set doesn’t justify breaking the gun safety rules that apply everywhere else. The physics of fatalities are not governed by jurisdiction, location, or circumstance. If you load a real gun with live ammunition, point it at someone, and press the trigger, you shouldn’t be surprised if a serious or fatal injury occurs, because that’s what guns are made to do.

If you want to cinematically portray a gun being shot, without endangering anyone, then you must use science to safely create the illusion of danger, in a manner in which no one will be injured.

To do this, there are several simple and well-known methods. They are enumerated in publications such as the Industry-Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee Recommendations. They include:

• Not using any gun into which one can introduce live ammunition. In other words, using ACTUAL prop guns that look like real guns but can’t shoot or even be loaded with live ammo. These guns are either manufactured to only be loadable with blanks, or were real guns that have been modified such that they can only be loaded with blanks. They are engineered such that live ammo will not fit in them.
• Not having live ammo on the set (other than as may be necessary for ensuring personal protection from criminal attack).
• Not pointing guns at things that you don’t want to see destroyed. By anyone. EVER. Not for an instant.
• Having ONE KEY PERSON responsible for the safe operation, use, maintenance, and storage of guns on set. On movies with large numbers of firearms, the Weapons Department may have numerous crew members, all of whom are highly experienced and all of whom work directly under the supervision of the department head.
• NO ONE from any other department handles any of the guns.
• ALL guns, at any time, are to be in only one of the following conditions: (a) in use under the supervision of an armorer, (b) being maintained, or (c) in safe storage. Guns are not to be left out unattended where anyone can access them.
• The established rules of safe gun management on set are inviolate. No pressures, be they budgetary, temporal, or otherwise, ever justify any departure from these rules, because departing from these rules can quickly and easily lead to serious injuries and death.
• The person in charge of gun safety must be experienced and command that job with authority. They are in charge. Not the director, the assistant director, the actor, or anyone else. They are to lay down the law and to enforce it. It is incumbent on the producer to ensure that this responsibility is given only to someone of sufficient knowledge, skill, and experience to execute the functions of that job completely and without failure.

Standard Movie-Set Gun Handling Procedures

Guns are used safely on a movie set through a defined procedure.

How Does Live Ammo Get on the Set?

This question is a non-starter. There is ammo in the world, and there is entropy, and therefore live ammo could potentially end up anywhere. For that reason every single round must be checked before using it.

The idea of blaming an incident on the presence of live ammo makes no more sense than a hospital having a policy that no one can bring germs into the building, and blaming the person who unintentionally brought them in for the hospital’s surgical infections. There should be, and is, a presumption that bacteria will enter the building, and that its presence must be mitigated with the use of air filtration, ozone generators, ultraviolet lights, and the use of sterilized tools and surgical gowns. These are the tools and procedures that mitigate this risk. A surgeon whose patient gets infected would be ridiculed if they asked, “How did bacteria get in here?” The correct question would be, “Why were the sterile precautionary rules not followed?”

Other Special Effects

Beyond fire, smoke, and firearms, there are many other effects to consider:

• Breakaway glass and props. These must be designed to break safely, avoiding sharp fragments that could injure performers.
• Chemicals. Only safe, tested chemicals should be used for effects like fake blood or snow. Hazardous materials, like carbon disulfide or yellow phosphorus, should be avoided.
• Miniatures. These can off-gas harmful chemicals under heat, so proper ventilation is critical.
• Flying. When rigging performers or objects to simulate flight, use appropriate harnesses and cables, and ensure everything is secure.
• Lasers. Lasers can cause serious eye and skin damage. Always follow safety protocols and use goggles when necessary.

Special effects make movie magic possible, but they come with risks that require careful management. By following established safety protocols and working with licensed professionals, we minimize dangers on set and keep everyone safe. From pyrotechnics to lasers, each effect demands a unique set of knowledge, skills, precautions, and expertise, and it’s our responsibility to ensure these measures are in place before we call “action.”

Chapter 8

Stunts

Falls, fights, vehicles, aircraft, the high-risk action that defines so many films, and the discipline that keeps it from killing people.

As discussed earlier in Chapter 1, the Screen Actors Guild conducted a study in 1982 that highlighted some of the main causes of injuries and illnesses on film sets. Among them were falls, inhaling smoke or chemicals, car crashes, fight scenes, equipment malfunctions, and working with horses or motorcycles. Most of these issues are stunt-related, which generally refers to any action sequence with more risk than usual for injury to the performers or anyone else on set. Stunts cover a range of activities like falls, fight scenes, car chases, helicopter maneuvers, horseback riding, and diving. In many cases, actors are doubled by trained stunt performers who have the experience and know-how to carry out these risky sequences. However, sometimes these scenes involve actors who don’t have the proper stunt training.

Stunt Performer Qualifications

From 1980 to 1990 alone, at least 37 people died in stunt-related incidents on film and television sets, 24 of them in helicopter crashes. The Associated Press later documented at least 43 more deaths on United States sets between 1990 and 2014. These fatalities include actors, stunt performers, and crew members, with many tragic incidents involving stunts like falls, vehicle crashes, and explosions. Some of the most notable cases include:

• Vic Morrow and two child actors, who died during a helicopter crash on the set of Twilight Zone: The Movie in 1982.
• John Bernecker, a stuntman on The Walking Dead, who died in 2017 after a fall from a balcony.
• Joi Harris, a motorcycle stunt performer, who tragically lost her life on the set of Deadpool 2 in 2017 during a stunt gone wrong.

These deaths have led to ongoing discussions about safety regulations and better enforcement of rules on film sets, highlighting the risks that stunt performers and crew face while working in high-pressure environments.

Unfortunately, there’s a lack of solid statistics on injuries, especially those that happen around stunts. Given the high potential for incidents, it’s crucial that stunt performers are qualified. One problem is that there’s no standardized system in place to evaluate stunt performers like there is for pyrotechnics operators. This means anyone can claim to be a stunt performer, leaving directors without a reliable way to judge their qualifications beyond word of mouth. But don’t underrate the value of reputation. Ask around.

In recent years, stunt associations and unions have pushed for a standardized classification system for stunt performers, but nothing has yet materialized.

General Stunt Procedures

Chapter 6 talked about the importance of planning for stunts and other high-risk situations during filming. To recap, there are two main stages: pre-planning and developing safe procedures for the stunt itself. Pre-planning involves reviewing the script for any hazardous scenes and assessing the risks. When planning how to execute a scene safely, questions like “Is there a safer way to do this?” or “Who is in charge of the stunt?” should be answered. It’s also important to figure out which outside agencies (e.g., fire department, medics) should be involved and what specific safety procedures are necessary.

The general procedures for stunts include:

1. Notifying all personnel about the stunt.
2. Conducting a detailed briefing on the stunt, including hazards, who’s involved, where the emergency medical facilities are, emergency procedures, and who the safety personnel are.
3. Ensuring enough rehearsal time.
4. Holding a final briefing with a dry run of the scene.
5. Conducting another meeting if there are any significant changes to the stunt.
6. Clearing all nonessential personnel off the set during the stunt.
7. Making sure there’s clear communication between all personnel, especially for emergencies.

I can’t cover every type of stunt, but I’ll focus on the stunts that have been responsible for the most injuries and fatalities, like helicopter and aircraft stunts, vehicle action, fire and explosions, high falls, animals, water stunts, and skydiving. The guidelines come from various safety bulletins and recommendations from industry committees and labor-management safety groups, with some expanded upon based on additional research.

Stunt Safety Tips for Actors

As a stunt coordinator, ensuring actors’ safety during fight scenes is crucial, especially when they’re performing their own stunts. Here are 10 essential tips to keep actors safe.

1. Proper Training

Ensure actors receive comprehensive fight training from professionals. They need to understand movement, balance, and technique to safely execute fight choreography.

2. Detailed Choreography

Design fight scenes with clear, precise choreography. Every movement should be rehearsed multiple times to ensure consistency and reduce the risk of incidents.

3. Warm-Up and Stretching

Encourage actors to warm up and stretch before performing any stunts. This reduces the likelihood of muscle strains, sprains, or injuries during high-intensity scenes.

4. Stunt Doubles for High-Risk Moves

Even if the actor is doing most of their stunts, always have stunt doubles available for particularly dangerous or complex moves, reducing the chance of injury.

5. Use of Safety Gear

Where possible, incorporate hidden safety gear such as knee pads, elbow pads, and protective gloves, especially during falls or high-impact sequences.

6. Controlled Speed

Perform fight sequences at a slower, controlled speed during rehearsals and film at that speed if possible. Speeding up footage in post-production can make the scene look faster while keeping actors safe.

7. Clear Communication

Maintain constant communication with actors, stunt performers, and the crew. Actors should know their cues, camera angles, and positions to avoid unintended hits or missteps.

8. Safe Distance

Ensure that actors maintain a safe distance from each other during strikes, punches, and kicks. Visual illusions, such as camera angles, can make hits appear real while keeping actors out of harm’s way.

9. Regular Breaks

Fight scenes can be exhausting. Allow regular breaks for actors to recover and rehydrate, preventing fatigue-related mistakes or incidents.

10. Emergency Protocols

Have first-aid and medical personnel on standby for any potential injuries. Ensure actors and the crew are briefed on emergency procedures and know where to find safety equipment on set.

Aircraft

Helicopters and airplanes are often used in aerial filming and stunts, which carry significant risks. Helicopters in particular have been responsible for many on-set fatalities, more than any other kind of accident. Since 1980, 33 film and television workers have died in helicopter crashes worldwide, 14 of them in the United States. The dead include pilots, stunt performers, actors, camera crew, and directors, because anyone nearby is at risk in a helicopter crash. Fixed-wing airplane crashes have killed far fewer, though they aren’t risk-free: stunt pilot Art Scholl died filming Top Gun in 1985.

Many of these crashes are caused by pilots who are not experienced enough with the types of stunts required for film work. Often, they’ll agree to perform stunts they’re not prepared for, underestimating the risks. Fatalities also occur when crew members fail to follow basic safety protocols around helicopters.

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Regulations

The FAA regulates the use of helicopters and other aircraft for filming. According to Section 91.79 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (14 CFR 91.79), there are minimum safe altitudes for aircraft:

• In congested areas, aircraft must fly at least 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a 2,000-foot radius.
• In non-congested areas, aircraft must fly at least 500 feet above the surface, except over open water or sparsely populated areas, where they can’t come closer than 500 feet to people, vehicles, or structures.

However, helicopters can operate below these minimum altitudes if the operation is conducted safely. The FAA also issues waivers for filming operations below these minimum altitudes, requiring the development of a “Motion Picture and Television Flight Operations Manual” to outline safety procedures. Only consenting participants directly involved in the filming are allowed within 500 feet of the aircraft during these operations.

Pilot Qualifications

The FAA has minimum requirements for pilots working on film sets:

1. A current U.S. Commercial or Airline Transport Pilot Certificate.
2. At least 500 hours as a pilot in command.
3. A minimum of 100 hours in the same category and class of aircraft being used.
4. At least 5 hours in the specific make and model of the aircraft.
5. A “statement of competency” for acrobatic maneuvers below 1,500 feet.

However, many film pilots and FAA personnel feel that 500 hours is not enough experience for the demands of film work and that a specialized rating system for film pilots is needed.

Helicopters

Helicopters present hazards whether they’re in the air, hovering, or on the ground. Here are some essential precautions:

1. Everyone on set, including the camera crew and actors, must be informed in advance when helicopters are being used. The FAA requires all personnel within 500 feet of a helicopter to give their consent.
2. There should be a detailed discussion of the helicopter sequences, the hazards, and the precautions being taken. A dry run-through should be conducted, and the scene should be listed on the call sheet with a note like: “An aircraft is being used and will be flown in close proximity to crew and equipment. Concerns should be addressed to the production manager or first assistant director before any filming.”
3. An independent aviation consultant (not the pilot) should be on set to oversee safety procedures. This consultant should be mandatory if more than one aircraft is involved.
4. All helicopter occupants, including pilots, should wear flight helmets. If a door is removed for shooting, seat belts and safety harnesses must be worn, and cameras should be secured separately.
5. Smoking is prohibited within 50 feet of the helicopter, and only essential personnel should be within that radius.

Fixed-Wing Airplanes

Fixed-wing airplanes also come with their own set of risks, both in the air and while maneuvering on the ground. Many of the safety precautions for helicopters apply here as well.

1. Everyone on set must be informed in advance when airplanes are being used, with consent required from anyone within 500 feet.
2. An independent aviation consultant (not the pilot) should be on set to manage safety.
3. The airplane pilot must have final approval over all aerial maneuvers and should be able to abort a sequence if safety is compromised.

Drones and Unmanned Aircraft

Drones have made aerial shots cheap and common, and that ubiquity is exactly what makes them easy to treat casually when they are still aircraft flying over people’s heads. A camera drone can lose power, lose signal, or be caught by wind and fall out of the sky, and its spinning propellers can cut badly on the way down. The hazards are a falling object, the cutting blades, and a machine that can suddenly fly somewhere it shouldn’t. Drones also startle horses and other animals, as the animal chapter notes.

Drone work over a set should be flown by a qualified, licensed operator under the applicable aviation rules, which in the United States means the Federal Aviation Administration’s requirements for commercial small unmanned aircraft, plus any waiver needed to fly over people. Keep uninvolved cast and crew out from under the flight path, brief everyone when a drone is up, maintain the aircraft and check it before flights, watch the battery, and have the operator land or trigger a controlled descent the moment something looks wrong. As with full-size aircraft, the person flying has the authority to refuse or abort a shot, and anyone on the ground who sees the drone behaving strangely or drifting toward people should call a stop.

Vehicle Action Sequences

Vehicle-related stunts, especially those involving cars and motorcycles, are a significant cause of incidents on film sets. Between 1980 and 1984, 10% of stunt injuries came from car crashes, and 5% from motorcycle crashes.

Who Should Drive?

It’s critical to determine who should drive in a scene. If the scene involves any risks beyond normal driving, a specially trained driver is necessary. Even for standard driving scenes, an expert should assess the actor’s driving skills to ensure safety. For more hazardous stunts, all drivers and passengers in the vehicles should be stunt performers. When a scene involves complex vehicle maneuvers, like car chases, every car in the scene should be driven by a stunt driver, as even skilled drivers might not react correctly in high-pressure situations.

General Recommendations for Vehicle Stunts

1. Notify all personnel in advance when vehicle action sequences are planned and include it on the call sheet.
2. All passengers in action scenes should receive training from a stunt coordinator in emergency procedures.
3. Vehicles used in stunts should be equipped with seat belts, harnesses, and airbags whenever possible. In cases where seat belts aren’t feasible (e.g., vintage cars), other safety measures should be in place.
4. For dangerous stunts like rollovers or jumps, both drivers and passengers should wear harnesses, padding, and surgical collars if necessary. Roll bars should also be installed.

Chapter 9

Working with Animals

Why the one cast member who never read the script can kill you, and why horses above all have to be planned for, acclimated, and supervised every minute they are on set.

An animal is the only performer on a set that never agreed to be there. A horse doesn’t know it’s in a movie. It doesn’t know the explosion is fake, the gunfire is loaded with blanks, or the crowd is paid to cheer. It knows only what tens of millions of years of being prey have taught it: that sudden noise, sudden movement, and unfamiliar objects mean a predator, and that the correct response is to run, and to run through whatever happens to be standing in the way. That is the whole problem in one sentence.

When investigating animal incidents, the same three questions apply that are asked in all other safety incidents. What was supposed to happen? What actually happened? And how did the gap between the two put someone in the hospital or in the ground? With horses, the answer to the third question is almost always the same. Someone was standing where a frightened animal could reach them, and no one had planned for the animal to be frightened. The horse did exactly what horses do. The people are the ones who departed from the standard.

This chapter is about doing it right, and about what it costs when you don’t. I’ll spend much of it on horses, because horses appear in more productions than any other large animal, and they’re big enough and fast enough to kill. But the principles carry over to every animal that’s ever been put in front of a camera, and I’ll cover the others I’ve worked with too: big cats, wolves, primates, snakes, and the bites, venom, diseases, and fatigue that come with all of them. The throughline is the same from one animal to the next: the same chain of command, the same planning, the same refusal to let a schedule override the person who can read the animal.

The Nature of the Hazard

Horses are big, fast, and built to flee. A working horse weighs between 1,000 and 1,300 pounds. It can reach a gallop of roughly 30 miles per hour in a few strides, which is faster than anyone on the set can run. A single kick from a hind leg can deliver well over a thousand pounds of force, enough to break a skull, snap a femur, or rupture organs through clothing. None of this requires the horse to be mean. A calm, well-trained horse that gets startled is still more than half a ton of muscle moving in a direction it chose in a fraction of a second.

A horse has two blind spots: directly behind it, and directly in front of its nose. It cannot see you when you stand in either place, and those are exactly the places where people get kicked and trampled. A horse also catches movement at the edges of its vision long before it understands what the movement is, and it reacts to the movement first and identifies it later, or never. That reaction is the flight response, and it cannot be trained away. Good training raises the threshold at which it fires. It does not remove it. Anyone who tells you a horse is “bombproof” is telling you they haven’t found this particular horse’s trigger yet.

When a horse is frightened it does some combination of the following, often with no warning between them: it bolts, it rears onto its hind legs, it bucks or kicks out, it spins, or it freezes and then does one of the others. A rider can come off in any of these. A person on the ground can be run over, struck, crushed against a fixed object, or dragged if a lead, rein, or piece of clothing catches. And the danger is not limited to the rider. A bolting horse does not steer around the camera crew. Bystanders standing in the open are in just as much danger as the person in the saddle, and sometimes more, because no one assigned them to think about the horse.

The list of things that can set a horse off is long, and most of it is the ordinary furniture of a film set:

• Sudden or loud noises: pyrotechnics, blank gunfire, a dropped light or flag, an air mover, a slate clap, applause, a public-address speaker.
• Flapping or billowing material: plastic sheeting, tarps, flags, loose costumes, tents, a script page blowing across the ground, an umbrella opening.
• Unfamiliar objects and shapes, especially at the edge of vision: cameras on cranes, dollies, wheelchairs, reflectors, a coat thrown over a fence rail.
• Sudden changes in light: a lamp struck on, a camera flash, a reflection off glass or water, a shadow swinging across the ground.
• Smoke, fog, and atmosphere, which also hide hazards from the horse and from you.
• Drones and remote vehicles, whose sound and motion read to a horse as a predator.
• Other animals, crowds, and large groups of people moving together.
• Slick, unstable, or unfamiliar footing: wet pavement, polished stone, plywood, mud, ice, or sand that gives way underfoot.
• Being separated from other horses, which a herd animal reads as being singled out by a predator.

Nearly every effect that makes a movie exciting, the pyrotechnics, gunfire, fire, and smoke of Chapter 7, is on the list of things that make a horse run. Special effects and live animals are not two departments that happen to share a call sheet. Together they are a single combined hazard, and they have to be planned together or kept apart entirely.

The Standards, and Who Enforces Them

There is more written guidance for animal work than most producers assume, and when something goes wrong an expert will measure what happened on the set against all of it. Knowing these documents exist, and following them, is the difference between a defensible production and an indefensible one.

• The Industry-Wide Labor-Management Safety Committee publishes Safety Bulletin Number Six, “Animal Handling Rules for the Motion Picture Industry.” This is the central document for the business. It is the closest thing the industry has to an agreed standard of care for animals on set, and it is the first thing I read when I’m retained on an animal case.
• The American Humane Association runs the program behind the “No Animals Were Harmed” end-credit certification, and publishes its Guidelines for the Safe Use of Animals in Filmed Media. Its certified representatives monitor animal action on set. Their mandate is the welfare of the animal, not the safety of the crew, but the two overlap heavily: the conditions that keep a horse calm are the same conditions that keep the people around it alive.
• The United States Department of Agriculture licenses animal exhibitors and suppliers under the federal Animal Welfare Act. The company that provides the horses should hold a current license, and the production should ask to see it before hiring them.
• The Occupational Safety and Health Administration covers the humans. There is no animal-specific federal workplace standard for film, so an inspector will reach for the general duty clause, which requires every employer to provide a workplace free of recognized hazards likely to cause death or serious harm. A spooking horse next to unprotected crew is exactly that kind of recognized hazard.
• State and local rules add filming permits, exhibitor licensing, and in some places specific handling requirements. Many jurisdictions also apply their anti-cruelty statutes to filmed animal action, which means a careless animal scene can expose the production to criminal as well as civil liability.

The Chain of Command

Animals get the same answer firearms get in Chapter 7: one person is in charge, and everyone else stays out of the way.

That person is the head animal handler, also called the head wrangler. On a horse-heavy production the animal department may have many wranglers, each responsible for specific animals, all working under the department head. The principle is identical to the armorer’s. The handler has final say over whether the animal works, when it works, and who is allowed to go near it. Not the director. Not the first assistant director. Not the actor. Not the producer with a schedule problem. If the handler says the horse isn’t right today, the horse doesn’t work, and the scene waits or changes. Period.

A few rules follow directly from that:

• No one outside the animal department touches, feeds, leads, mounts, or approaches the animal without the handler’s express permission. This is the same rule that governs guns on set, and for the same reason: a single untrained person doing one unexpected thing can start the chain that ends in a death.
• The head handler who is supervising the scene does not also perform in it. You can’t watch the whole picture and act at the same time, any more than an armorer can run the weapons and play a part. Supervision and performance are two full-time jobs. A wrangler, though, absolutely can be in the movie: riding the horse in a chase, fighting the tiger, working the snake in a close-up. When the animal interaction itself is the dangerous part of the shot, the person doing it on camera should often be a trained wrangler doubling for the actor, not the actor, because the most qualified person to be that close to the animal is someone who works animals for a living. What can’t happen is for the one person responsible for overseeing the whole scene’s safety to also be the one buried inside the action.
• Anyone on the production, of any rank, can call “stop” the moment they see something unsafe, and the production thanks them for it. Every animal incident I’ve worked was preceded by someone who saw the horse getting agitated, or saw a person standing in the wrong place, and didn’t say anything. If you see something, say something.

Train the People, Not the Animal

An animal can never be fully trained, but a person can. A horse can be schooled for years and still bolt at a plastic bag. A tiger can hit every mark for a decade and still be a tiger on the wrong afternoon. You can raise the threshold at which an animal reacts, but you can’t pull the wiring out from under it. People are the opposite. A person can be taught a rule and then follow it every single time. So the burden sits where the reliability is, on the people, and that means the entire crew, not just the animal department, has to be taught how to behave around the animal before the animal ever arrives. The lessons are simple and unglamorous: don’t walk up behind it, don’t reach for it, don’t make sudden moves or sudden noise near it, don’t feed it, don’t crowd it for a photo, and don’t ever assume that because it looks calm it’s safe. The animal can’t be taught the rules of a film set. The people can, so the people are the ones who have to change their behavior. Every member of the crew is part of the animal’s environment whether they signed up for it or not, and a calm environment is something the people build, not something the animal provides.

Planning, Before the Animal Arrives

Animal safety is decided in pre-production, not on the day. By the time the horse is standing on the set, almost every decision that matters has already been made or already been missed. The work in this section is the work that prevents incidents. Everything on the day is just execution.

A workable pre-production sequence for any scene with a horse:

1. Identify every scene with an animal, and define exactly what the animal must do. “A horse in the background” and “a horse galloping past a pyrotechnic charge” are completely different jobs with completely different risks. Write down the job.
2. Decide honestly whether a live animal is even required, or whether a mechanical horse, a process shot, a riding double, or computer-generated imagery achieves the shot without the risk. Realism is not a reason to put a living animal next to an explosion. Ask the Chapter 6 question: is there a safer way to do this without sacrificing the story? More and more frequently, the answer may be found in computer-generated imagery or the use of blue screens.
3. Engage a licensed animal supplier and a head handler early, and bring them into how the scene will be shot, not just onto the set on the shoot day.
4. Vet the specific animal: its training, its temperament, its history on similar work, and whether it has already been worked around the specific effects this scene requires. A horse that is calm on one set is not automatically calm on yours. The individual animal matters as much as the breed or the resume of its owner.
5. Acclimate the animal to the set conditions gradually and in advance: the surface, the lights, the sounds, the effects, the crowd, the wardrobe, the camera equipment. Build up to the real intensity over days, not minutes. Never spring a new stimulus on a horse for the first time during filming.
6. Survey the location for footing, containment, and escape routes before you commit to it.
7. Hold a combined planning meeting with the animal department, special effects, stunts, sound, and the first assistant director, and write down in plain language who is responsible for what.
8. Rehearse the scene with the animal at reduced intensity, then build up, with the handler stopping the instant the animal shows stress.

Footing and Containment

The ground decides a surprising number of horse incidents. A horse that slips panics, and a panicked horse on bad footing falls or bolts. Look at the surface the horse will actually work on, not the nice surface next to it. Hard, smooth surfaces like polished concrete, marble, or wet pavement need matting or sanding for traction. Check for hidden holes, cables, broken glass, and debris that a hoof can catch or roll on. Plan and mark escape routes for both the animals and the people, and make sure the containment, the fencing, gates, and barriers, is solid enough to turn a running horse. A rope strung between two traffic cones will not stop a thousand pounds of frightened animal; it will only convince the crew they’re protected when they aren’t. Keep the animal staging area separated from craft services, crowds, and equipment.

The Rider and the Actor

Never take an actor’s word for their riding ability. “I can ride” can mean anything from a lifetime of competition to one pony ride at a birthday party. Have a qualified person assess the actor’s actual skill against what the scene demands, and be honest about the gap. For anything beyond a walk on a calm horse, use a trained riding double. The whole point of a double is that the dangerous riding is done by someone who has trained for exactly this.

Build protective equipment into the work. A properly fitted helmet hidden under a hat or wig, padding under wardrobe, and footwear that won’t hang up in a stirrup are all available and all invisible on camera with a little planning. Inspect tack, the saddle, girth, bridle, reins, and stirrups, before every use, and never hard-tie a horse to anything near people; use a quick-release arrangement so a panicked horse can be freed instantly. And as with every hazardous scene in this book, any performer may refuse to do something they believe is unsafe, with no penalty and no explanation required.

On Set: The Standard Procedure

Horses are worked safely on a set through a defined procedure, the same way guns are. It exists so that the safe thing happens by routine, not by luck or by whoever happens to be paying attention that minute. An expert reviewing an incident will lay the production’s actual conduct against a procedure like this one, step by step, and identify exactly which steps were skipped. The skipped steps are usually the cause.

None of this is exotic. It’s the same disciplined, boring, repeatable routine that keeps guns and pyrotechnics from killing people, applied to an animal that, unlike a gun, can decide on its own to go off.

If a Horse Gets Loose

Plan for the runaway before it happens, and brief the crew on it, because the natural human instinct in the moment is exactly the wrong one. The plan is simple, and it is the handler’s to direct:

• Do not chase the horse, and do not grab at it. Chasing drives the flight response harder and a person who catches a rein on a bolting horse gets dragged.
• Get people behind solid barriers and out of the open. The goal in the first seconds is to remove human targets from the horse’s path, not to catch the horse.
• Let the handler work the animal. Handlers recover loose horses by calming and containing them, often with other horses, not by force. Give them room and quiet.
• Contain the area. Close gates and block exits toward roads, crowds, and drop-offs so the horse can’t reach a worse place than the one it’s in.
• Account for people first. Before anyone celebrates catching the horse, check that no one was struck, dragged, or knocked down. Injured people don’t always call out.

When the Rules Are Ignored: The Consequences

Steve asked me to be blunt about what happens when a production skips the steps in this chapter, so here it is, in two parts: what it does to a body, and what it does to everyone who was responsible.

What a Spooked Horse Does to a Person

A frightened horse injures people through blunt force, and the injuries are severe because the forces are enormous. The common mechanisms are trampling, which produces crushing injuries to the chest, abdomen, pelvis, and skull as a half-ton animal runs over a person on the ground; kicks, which concentrate over a thousand pounds of force into a small area and routinely break bones and rupture organs; being thrown from the saddle, which produces head and spinal injuries even from a standing horse and far worse from a moving one; being dragged when a foot hangs in a stirrup or a hand tangles in a lead; and being crushed when a horse pins a person against a wall, a vehicle, or a fence. Secondary collisions add to the count: people knocked into equipment, into each other, or into the path of a vehicle while scrambling to get clear.

These injuries are frequently fatal or permanently disabling, and they are not confined to the rider. The history of this business is full of camera operators, grips, extras, and bystanders hurt by an animal that someone else was responsible for. That is the point of the exclusion zone and the bolt-path rule: the people most likely to be hurt are often the people who were never told to watch the horse.

What It Does to Everyone Responsible

When someone is seriously hurt by an animal on a set, the consequences land on the production and the individuals who ran it. The shape of that liability is laid out in Chapter 11, but here is how it applies to animals specifically.

• Civil liability. Lawsuits for negligence routinely follow serious animal injuries, and they reach the production company, the animal supplier, the head handler, the stunt coordinator, the special-effects coordinator, and the director. Damages cover medical costs, lost earnings, pain and suffering, and, where the conduct was reckless, punitive damages on top. The case turns on the three forensic questions from the first page of this book: what should have happened, what did happen, and how the gap caused the harm. The standard procedure in this chapter is the “should have happened.” Every step the production skipped is a brick in the plaintiff’s wall.
• Regulatory enforcement. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration can cite the employer under the general duty clause, levy fines, and in egregious cases refer the matter for criminal prosecution. State workplace-safety agencies can do the same.
• Animal-welfare consequences. The United States Department of Agriculture can act against an exhibitor’s license under the Animal Welfare Act. The American Humane Association can withhold or withdraw its “No Animals Were Harmed” certification, which is both a marketing loss and a public signal that something went wrong. Where state anti-cruelty law applies to filmed animal action, criminal charges are possible.
• Production and insurance consequences. An animal incident shuts down the set, drives up insurance claims and premiums, and can make a production uninsurable going forward. In the worst cases it ends the project outright. After horses died during the production of the HBO series “Luck,” the network canceled the show in 2012. A horse program that ignores safety doesn’t just risk a person; it can take the whole production down with it.
• Criminal exposure. Criminal prosecution of workplace fatalities is still rare, but it is increasing, and it is most likely exactly where this chapter’s rules were knowingly ignored: where a producer or coordinator was told the setup was dangerous and pushed ahead anyway. “We were behind schedule” is not a defense to a homicide charge.

A short history makes the welfare side concrete. After a horse was deliberately run off a cliff and killed during a 1939 production, the resulting outcry led the American Humane Association to begin monitoring animal action on film sets, and the cruder horse-felling techniques of early Hollywood, trip wires and the so-called “Running W” that jerked a galloping horse’s legs out from under it, were driven out of legitimate filmmaking. Those methods are prohibited today, both because they are cruel and because they are wildly dangerous to the rider and to anyone nearby. A modern horse fall is performed by a specially trained falling horse, onto prepared soft ground, or it is created with effects, animatronics, or computer graphics. If anyone proposes bringing a horse down with a wire, the answer is no, and the conversation is over.

Beyond Horses: The Other Animals

Horses get most of this chapter because they show up on more sets than anything else with a heartbeat, but they’re far from the only animal that can hurt someone, and they’re one of the more cooperative ones. So before we leave the subject, I want to widen the lens, because the moment you bring in a predator instead of a prey animal, some of the rules flip.

Start with a distinction that matters more than people think: domestication is not the same as taming, and neither one erases instinct. A horse, a dog, and a handful of other species have been bred alongside humans for thousands of years, and that long history has changed them; they’re wired to read us and to tolerate us in a way a wild animal never will. But “better domesticated” is a sliding scale, not a switch, and it runs out fast. A tiger raised on a bottle from the day it was born is tame, meaning it’s used to people. It is not domesticated, and it is not safe. Underneath the training, almost every animal you’ll put in front of a camera still carries the full set of instincts that kept its species alive in the wild, and a good number of those instincts can kill you. The calmest big cat on earth is still running predator software. The job is never to trust that the instinct is gone. The job is to assume it’s still there, build the work so it’s never triggered, and have a plan for the day it is.

Big Cats

A tiger is a four-hundred-pound ambush predator that can cover the distance between you and it faster than you can react, and it does its hunting in silence. Everything that makes a horse dangerous, the size and the speed, a big cat has too, but with one terrible addition: a horse that hurts you is frightened and trying to leave, while a cat that hurts you may be doing exactly what it was built to do. You manage a horse by keeping it calm. You manage a cat by never letting it rehearse the behavior you’re afraid of, and by keeping a hard barrier or a trained handler between it and everyone else.

Professionals get around the impossibility of controlling a single animal by not asking one animal to do everything. When I worked on The Jungle Book we used five tigers, each trained in a different skill, to play the one tiger the audience sees. One cat did the calm walk. One did the run. One was comfortable working close to the camera. One would lie still on a mark. One did a specific piece of action the others wouldn’t. No single tiger was asked to do anything outside the narrow band it was reliable at, because reliability is the whole game; an animal pushed past what it knows is an animal looking for its own way out of the situation. The shot the audience reads as one fierce, versatile cat is five calm, specialized ones edited together.

This is also where a wrangler ends up in the movie. When a scene calls for a person to fight the tiger, wrestle it, or be close enough to touch it on camera, the person doing that is almost never the actor; it’s a trained big-cat wrangler who knows that specific animal, doubling for the actor and dressed to match. The same is true for the dangerous riding on a horse and for handling a snake in a tight shot. The skilled animal person becomes a performer for the length of the dangerous beat, then steps back out. That’s different from the head handler supervising the whole scene, who stays out of the action so somebody is always watching the entire picture.

Wolves and Other Wild Canids

People look at a wolf and see a big dog, and that mistake is the whole danger. A dog has thousands of years of breeding that make it want to please a human. A wolf, or a wolfdog, has almost none of it. Wolves are intelligent, intensely social on their own terms, and acutely sensitive to who’s confident and who’s nervous, which means they read fear and hesitation in a crew instantly and respond to it. They’re also escape artists; containment that holds a dog is a suggestion to a wolf. The practical rules are to use animals from a reputable, licensed supplier who has socialized them to film work, to keep the number of people around them to the minimum, to brief everyone that this is not a petting situation no matter how dog-like the animal looks, and to never let the production’s affection for a charismatic animal erode the discipline around it. The friendlier a wild canid seems, the more people drop their guard, and a dropped guard is how people get bitten.

Monkeys and Other Primates

Primates are a different category of problem, and in some ways the worst one, because the danger isn’t mainly that they’re big or fast. It’s that they’re smart, quick-handed, emotionally volatile, and biologically close enough to us to trade diseases in both directions. Even small monkeys are far stronger than they look, they bite hard and without much warning when startled or annoyed, and they don’t telegraph the way a horse does. Adult apes are strong enough to do catastrophic harm and for that reason are generally not used in close contact at all. The disease risk is real and runs both ways: macaque monkeys can carry a herpes virus that’s usually harmless to them and can be fatal to a human from a single bite or scratch, and our own ordinary illnesses, a cold sore or the flu, can sicken or kill a primate. That two-way traffic is why primate work involves barriers, hygiene, and limited contact that can feel excessive until you understand what’s actually being prevented.

Snakes and Venomous Reptiles

Snakes scare crews more than they hurt them, and the fear creates its own incidents: someone backs into equipment, off a platform, or into another person to get away from a snake that was never going to reach them. Most snake work uses non-venomous animals, and the right response to a non-venomous snake is calm handling by the wrangler and no panic from anyone else. The serious line gets crossed when a scene calls for a venomous snake. If a venomous animal is used at all, and many productions decide it isn’t worth it, then the species must be identified in advance, the correct antivenin must be located and its whereabouts confirmed before the animal arrives, the nearest hospital equipped to treat that specific bite must be identified, and the wrangler handling the animal works alone in a cleared, controlled space. Here again a wrangler may be the one in the shot, because handling a snake on camera is a job for someone who actually knows snakes, not for an actor who’s been told to look brave.

Containment: Barriers, Cages, and Electric Lines

Every animal on a set needs to be somewhere it can’t get to people, and somewhere people can’t wander up to it, and the strength of that containment has to match the animal. A rail that holds a calm horse means nothing to a frightened one, and a fence that holds a frightened horse means nothing to a big cat. Containment is sized to the worst thing the animal can do, not to how it’s behaving while everyone’s watching.

One specific tool worth understanding is the electric containment line, the same low-voltage hot wire used on ranches and in zoos. Run along the top or inside face of a barrier, it delivers a sharp, memorable, non-injurious shock that teaches an animal where the edge of its space is and keeps it off the fence. Used correctly it’s a humane and effective backup that does its work through respect rather than force. But it’s a backup, never the primary barrier, because electric lines fail in ordinary ways: the power drops, a battery dies, a wire shorts out on wet grass, and the line the crew has been trusting goes dead without announcing it. Treat the hot wire as the belt and the physical barrier as the suspenders, mark the line so people don’t grab it, and never let its presence talk anyone into standing closer than the solid barrier alone would allow.

The Biological Hazards Every Animal Brings

The crushing and trampling injuries earlier in this chapter are the dramatic ones, but animals carry a quieter category of hazard that’s just as real and far more often ignored, because it doesn’t make a noise on set. An animal doesn’t have to spook to send someone to the hospital. It can do it with its mouth, with its venom, or with something invisible it’s carrying.

Bites and Crush Injuries

Any animal with teeth can bite, and a bite is never just a cut. Animal mouths are full of bacteria, so even a minor-looking puncture can drive infection deep into tissue where soap and water won’t reach it. A bite that breaks the skin is a medical matter, not a first-aid one: it needs to be cleaned properly, evaluated by a clinician, and watched for infection, with attention to tetanus and, depending on the animal, rabies. Cat bites in particular look trivial and infect badly, because the narrow puncture seals over and traps the bacteria inside. Beyond bites, large animals injure people by closing space: a horse leaning a person into a wall, a big animal stepping on a foot, a tail or a swung head catching someone across the face. None of that requires aggression. It requires only that a person was close enough, which is the whole argument for the exclusion zone.

Venomous Bites and Stings

Venom turns a bite from an infection risk into a time-critical emergency, and the planning has to be finished before the animal is anywhere near the set, because there’s no time to improvise it during the bite. If any venomous animal is on the call sheet, snake, scorpion, spider, or anything else, the rule is simple and absolute: know the exact species, know where the matching antivenin is and confirm it’s actually in stock somewhere reachable, know which hospital can treat that specific envenomation, and have the route and the transport settled in advance. A bite is treated as a true emergency from the first second, with immediate transport, because the dangerous instinct is to wait and see how bad it gets. And it’s always worth asking the Chapter 6 question first: does the shot truly require a live venomous animal, or can a non-venomous look-alike, a fabricated prop, or computer-generated imagery do the job with none of the risk? Often it can.

Disease Travels Both Ways

The diseases that pass between animals and people are called zoonotic diseases, and on a set the traffic runs in both directions. From animals to people the list is long and ordinary: rabies from a bite, leptospirosis from water contaminated with animal urine, ringworm off the coat of a horse or a cat, the herpes virus that macaque monkeys carry, psittacosis from birds, and the everyday risk of contaminated bedding and waste. From people to animals, our common illnesses can be serious to them; primates especially can catch our respiratory viruses and our cold sores, sometimes fatally. The defenses are unglamorous and they work: source animals from suppliers who keep them vaccinated and healthy, wash hands and change anything contaminated, keep the number of people in contact small, keep sick crew away from susceptible animals, and treat animal waste as the biological hazard it is rather than something to step over. This is also why the animal staging area stays well clear of where people eat.

Animal Fatigue

A tired animal is a dangerous animal, and fatigue is one of the most common things I see ignored, because it builds slowly and quietly while the visible problem, the spook or the bite, only shows up at the end. An animal that’s been doing take after take, or standing under hot lights, or hauled a long way to location and worked the same day, gets worn down exactly the way a person does, but it can’t tell anyone, and as it tires its tolerance for everything else drops. The same horse that ignored the smoke machine on take three bolts at it on take twenty, not because the smoke changed but because the horse ran out of patience. The protections are obvious once the problem is named: limit the number of takes, build in real rest, water, and feeding, provide shade and warmth, rotate animals where the budget allows so no single one carries the whole day, and give the handler unquestioned authority to call an animal done when it’s spent. The handler watching for fatigue is watching for a crash that hasn’t happened yet, and the only person who can read it is the one who knows that animal. When that person says the animal’s tired, the animal’s tired.

A Note From the Set

I worked with animals on The Jungle Book for Disney, on a production thick with both effects and live animals at the same time. The lesson that stays with me from that kind of show isn’t dramatic. It’s the opposite. The thing that keeps everyone safe around animals is boring, and it has to be boring every single day: you keep the fire, the smoke, and the fabricated set pieces I was responsible for well away from anything with hooves or claws; you let the handlers run the animals without interference; and you never, not once, let the schedule talk you into a shortcut around a living creature that can’t be reasoned with. The day someone decides the boring discipline is slowing them down is the day the animal teaches everyone why the discipline existed.

Chapter 10

Medical Services & Supplies

From a sprained ankle to a mass-casualty event, what kind of medical care a production needs, and how to plan for it.

The type of medical services needed during a film production depends on the location, the available local resources, and the potential medical risks involved.

Types of Medical Care

There are two main types of medical care we need to think about on set: non-emergency medical care and emergency medical services. First aid isn’t exactly medical care but falls under emergency support treatment.

Non-Emergency Medical Care

On any film set, especially with large groups of people, there will be non-emergency medical issues like cuts, bruises, allergic reactions, or minor illnesses. These kinds of problems can be handled by Family Practice physicians or primary-care doctors who specialize in areas like internal medicine or surgery. Ideally, they should be board-certified in their specialties, ensuring a level of expertise. For more details about the training of these physicians, you can check with the American College of Family Practitioners.

Emergency Medical Care

Medical emergencies are always a possibility, no matter the size of the production. These emergencies could range from something relatively minor, like a sprained ankle, to major problems such as heart attacks, severe injuries, or even large-scale disasters. If your film involves dangerous stunts or special effects, the chance of a major emergency increases. Emergencies should be handled by physicians who specialize in Emergency Medicine, as they are trained specifically to deal with these situations. To qualify as an Emergency Physician, a doctor must go through specialized residency training and pass exams to be board-certified in this field. Most hospital emergency departments will have these professionals on staff.

First Aid

The goal of first aid is to provide emergency support before the person can reach a doctor. It’s not a replacement for medical treatment but rather a way to stabilize the person until they can get proper care. First aid can also handle small cuts and bruises that don’t necessarily need full medical treatment.

In the U.S., there are several levels of certification for first-aid practitioners, starting with certified first responders who receive about 40 hours of training. From there, you move up to EMT-basic, EMT-intermediate, EMT critical-care technician, and EMT paramedic. The higher levels require working under a doctor’s supervision, which can be done via radio or phone. Most hospitals maintain facilities for this kind of oversight. EMT-basics and certified first responders can handle tasks like immobilizing a patient for transport, doing CPR, and basic wound care. However, they aren’t allowed to administer oxygen or medication, give IVs, read EKGs, or use defibrillators or other resuscitation equipment.

While nurses are often brought onto sets, they also need to work under a physician’s direct supervision to provide care beyond basic first aid. Nurses, unless specially trained, don’t have the same expertise as advanced EMTs when it comes to emergency first aid.

Needs Assessment

The first step in planning medical care for a shoot is conducting a needs assessment to pinpoint potential medical risks. This assessment, along with planning and implementation, should involve an Emergency Physician, as non-medical personnel typically aren’t equipped to make these evaluations.

In the U.S. and Canada, production companies can reach out to the American College of Emergency Physicians for help assessing local services and medical standards. For more localized information, contacting the Chair of the nearest Department of Emergency Medicine at a university hospital can be useful. In underdeveloped countries, medical services might not meet American standards, so it may be necessary to rely on companies that specialize in providing medical services for film productions worldwide. Information on international medical care can be found through resources like the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), the U.S. State Department, or the World Health Organization (WHO).

A proper needs assessment involves reviewing several key areas.

Script Review

The script needs to be analyzed for any potentially hazardous scenes, like stunts, underwater sequences, or action scenes, that could increase medical risks. Once these risks are identified, safe procedures can be developed.

Location Review

After the locations are selected, an evaluation of potential medical hazards specific to those places is crucial. For example, shooting in old, abandoned buildings could expose the crew to asbestos, while shooting in extreme climates, such as deserts or freezing conditions, could lead to heat-related illnesses or frostbite. There’s also a need to be aware of the local health situation, especially in foreign countries where there could be concerns like vaccination requirements, local diseases, or epidemic outbreaks.

The quality of local medical care, including the availability of hospitals, clinics, and emergency transport, should also be evaluated. If the production is in a major urban area like New York City, the local healthcare system should meet modern standards, and the needs assessment would focus on identifying trauma centers and burn units in case of incidents.

Personnel

The number of people on set, whether it’s actors, crew, or other staff, can affect the level of medical care required. High-risk groups like children, the elderly, or people with disabilities need special consideration.

Pre-Planning Phase

Once the needs assessment is complete, a more in-depth analysis of hazards and risks is necessary to create and implement a comprehensive safety plan.

Emergency Planning

A plan for medical emergencies, from individual health crises to large-scale disasters, must be developed. This includes coordinating with local authorities, like police and fire departments, especially for stunts or effects involving fire or explosions. Meetings with local hospitals and emergency transportation services are essential to ensure timely care during emergencies. Advanced arrangements should be made to avoid long waits in hospital ERs, especially if different hospitals are needed for specific situations like heart attacks or burn injuries. If the local emergency services are insufficient, private services should be arranged.

Non-Emergency Medical Care

Since non-emergency medical issues will likely arise, arrangements should be made with local hospitals or private doctors for routine care. These agreements should cover the types of care provided, costs, and payment details. If filming in a remote area, on-site medical care may be necessary to avoid costly downtime.

Foreign Locations

Filming abroad presents additional challenges, like needing vaccinations, safe water, and ensuring local medications meet American standards. In countries with lower healthcare standards, more comprehensive on-site medical care will be required.

On-Site Medical Care

The need for on-site medical care depends on the risks involved and the availability of emergency services nearby.

Availability of Emergency Medical Care

In severe injuries, trauma care must be available within 10 minutes. If proper medical care can be reached within this time frame, basic first-aid facilities may be enough, as in most urban U.S. locations. However, in more remote areas, a board-certified Emergency Physician should be present on-site.

Medical Care Guidelines

For stunts involving high risks, like explosions, especially if trauma care isn’t nearby, on-site Emergency Physicians are crucial. In cases where risks are lower, but medical treatment could still be delayed, EMTs may suffice. The following is a general recommendation based on filming conditions:

• No high-risk stunts. EMT-intermediate level, preferably with physician supervision.
• Hazardous stunts. Certified EMT paramedics with direct communication to a supervising physician, or a board-certified Emergency Physician on-site.

Emergency Transportation

Proper emergency transportation, such as an ambulance with life support, must be available on-site. Regular cars or helicopters aren’t adequate for this purpose. For high-risk situations, relying on local ambulance services may cause delays, so it’s best to have one ready at the location. In remote areas, specialized emergency vehicles like evacuation helicopters might be necessary.

Cost of Medical Care

Proper medical planning can save money in several ways:

1. Immediate access to trained personnel and equipment can prevent fatalities or long delays.
2. On-site care for minor issues can minimize lost production time.
3. Reducing on-set injuries can lower workers’ compensation rates.
4. A solid emergency medical program can lead to lower liability insurance premiums.
5. Planned medical programs tend to be cheaper than dealing with incidents on a case-by-case basis.

Chapter 11

Laws and Regulations

OSHA, NIOSH, workers’ comp, fire and municipal codes, the regulatory landscape every production navigates, and the civil and criminal liability that follows when it doesn’t.

Many federal, state, and local agencies enforce the health and safety laws that apply directly to motion picture and television productions. On top of that, if there’s an incident, various parties can be held liable in lawsuits, especially if negligence is involved. This chapter breaks down the key laws and agencies you need to know.

OSHA

The federal Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act) of 1970 requires employers to ensure “safe and healthful working conditions” for all workers. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), a federal agency, enforces this law by issuing health and safety standards and inspecting workplaces. OSHA can also fine employers who fail to comply.

Coverage. OSH Act applies to private employers and their employees in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and other U.S. territories. In 23 states with OSHA-approved state plans, enforcement is delegated to the state. These states include California, Arizona, Michigan, and others. When OSHA adopts a regulation, these states have six months to implement a similar standard.

Rights and Responsibilities

Employers are responsible for maintaining a hazard-free workplace, understanding OSHA standards, keeping records, notifying OSHA of fatalities or large-scale injuries, posting citations, and addressing any violations.

Employees, on the other hand, must follow safety rules, report hazards, and cooperate with OSHA inspectors. They also have the right to see OSHA standards, request inspections, file complaints, and access their own medical and exposure records without fear of discrimination.

OSHA Standards

Employers are required to ensure a safe workplace. If no specific OSHA standard applies to a situation, OSHA inspectors can still use the general duty clause to enforce safety. Standards cover emergency plans, fire safety, machine guarding, hazardous materials, and more. Some hazards specific to motion picture production may not have direct standards, but the general duty clause could still apply.

Cal-OSHA

In California, motion picture production is classified as a high-hazard industry. Cal-OSHA requires employers to have a written Injury and Illness Prevention Program that outlines safety responsibilities, hazard identification, communication systems, training, and documentation.

Toxic and Hazardous Substance Standards

OSHA’s Subpart Z, Toxic and Hazardous Substances, lists the Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) for hundreds of chemicals. These limits were updated to reflect changes by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). However, many people believe that the standards are influenced by the manufacturers of the chemicals, raising questions about their adequacy. Air sampling is required to apply these numerical limits effectively.

Some substances, like asbestos, lead, and formaldehyde, have specific standards under OSHA.

Hazard Communication Standard

The Hazard Communication Standard ensures that workers are informed about hazardous substances in the workplace. Employers must create written communication programs, label containers, maintain safety data sheets (SDS), and provide training on these hazards.

OSHA Inspections

OSHA can inspect workplaces without prior notice, particularly in cases of imminent danger, fatalities, employee complaints, or when random inspections target high-risk industries like motion picture production. Inspectors can issue citations with penalties depending on the severity of the violation. These citations come with deadlines for correcting the problem, and they can be appealed by employers, employees, or unions.

Record-Keeping and Reporting

Employers must record occupational injuries and illnesses that result in lost workdays, restricted motion, unconsciousness, or medical treatment. These incidents are tracked using OSHA forms and must be posted annually for at least 30 days. Currently, motion picture production is exempt from this requirement in most states, except in California. Any work-related death or the hospitalization of five or more employees must be reported to OSHA within 48 hours.

Voluntary Compliance Program

OSHA offers a voluntary compliance program, typically managed by state labor departments, where an employer can request an inspection without fear of penalties. The program will provide recommendations for improving safety, and as long as the employer is actively addressing the issues, OSHA will not conduct its own inspection.

NIOSH

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) supports OSHA by conducting occupational health and safety research and offering technical assistance. NIOSH can require workplace inspections, exposure monitoring, and employee medical exams as part of its research. Employers or groups of three or more employees can also request a Health Hazard Evaluation if they believe a workplace hazard exists.

Workers’ Compensation Laws

Workers’ compensation laws cover most employees in the U.S., offering benefits for job-related injuries and illnesses, including medical costs, wage replacement, and survivor benefits in case of death. These laws vary by state.

What Is Covered?

Injuries are generally covered if they occur on the job or are work-related, even if the injury happens off-site (like during a delivery or remote location shoot). Illnesses caused or aggravated by the job may also be covered, depending on the state.

Insurance Carriers

Employers can choose between private insurance carriers, state funds, or self-insurance to cover workers’ compensation. The premiums depend on the company’s track record of workers’ compensation claims.

Fire Prevention Laws

There aren’t usually specific fire prevention laws for film productions, but OSHA and state/local fire regulations still apply. Fire departments can issue permits, inspect sites, and enforce fire safety codes. In California, for instance, the Film Industry Fire/Life Safety Handbook offers guidelines that can be adopted by local fire departments.

Municipal Regulations

Local regulations, such as filming permits, traffic control, health and sanitation requirements, and building codes, are enforced by municipalities. Production companies often need to interface with various city agencies for necessary permits. Many cities, like New York City, have film commissions to help streamline this process.

Civil Liability

Lawsuits are common in cases of serious injury or death during motion picture production, typically claiming negligence. These suits can result in multi-million-dollar settlements, covering things like medical expenses, lost wages, and punitive damages.

Who Can Be Sued?

Workers’ compensation laws prevent employees from suing their employers for most job-related injuries, but they can sue independent contractors if negligence was involved, and can sue their employer in cases of gross negligence. For example, an injured stunt performer could sue a special-effects coordinator or director, but not the production company (their employer). The distinction between employee and independent contractor depends on the level of control the individual has over their work.

Criminal Prosecution

While still rare, criminal prosecutions for workplace fatalities are increasing, especially when it can be shown that an employer knowingly ignored hazards. Future prosecutions may focus on whether a health-and-safety program was in place and if risks were properly evaluated.

Appendix

Quick References and Checklists

First aid kit contents, a quick guide to emergency care, and how to use a fire extinguisher correctly.

First Aid Kit Contents

Here’s a checklist for your on-set first aid kit. It includes items for handling minor injuries, trauma, and emergency medical situations. Gear is not a substitute for training.

Basic First Aid Supplies

• ☐ Adhesive bandages (various sizes)
• ☐ Sterile gauze pads (4x4 inch, 2x2 inch)
• ☐ Roller bandages (gauze or elastic)
• ☐ Adhesive tape (medical-grade)
• ☐ Triangular bandages (for slings or support)
• ☐ Non-stick sterile dressings
• ☐ Antiseptic wipes or towelettes
• ☐ Antibiotic ointment (e.g., Neosporin)
• ☐ Hydrogen peroxide (for wound cleaning)
• ☐ Saline solution (for wound and eye irrigation)
• ☐ Tweezers (for removing debris)
• ☐ Scissors (blunt-ended)
• ☐ Safety pins (for securing bandages)
• ☐ Cotton balls or cotton swabs
• ☐ Instant cold packs
• ☐ Hot packs or heat pads
• ☐ Disposable gloves (nitrile or latex-free)
• ☐ Face masks (for CPR or protection)

Emergency and Trauma Supplies

• ☐ CPR mask / barrier with one-way valve
• ☐ Tourniquet (medical grade)
• ☐ Emergency blanket (Mylar)
• ☐ Burn gel or burn dressings
• ☐ Eye-wash kit
• ☐ Splinting materials (SAM splint or equivalent)
• ☐ Hemostatic gauze (for serious bleeding)
• ☐ Israeli bandage (or other trauma bandages)
• ☐ Elastic bandage wraps (for sprains or strains)
• ☐ Oxygen tank with mask and tubing, plus wrench
• ☐ Ambu bag

Medications and Creams

• ☐ Pain relievers (ibuprofen, acetaminophen)
• ☐ Antihistamines (Benadryl for allergic reactions)
• ☐ Burn cream (aloe vera or lidocaine-based)
• ☐ Anti-diarrheal (loperamide)
• ☐ Antacids (Tums)
• ☐ Hydrocortisone cream (for itching or rashes)
• ☐ Electrolyte powder (for dehydration)

Tools and Instruments

• ☐ Blood pressure cuff and stethoscope
• ☐ Thermometer (digital or infrared)
• ☐ Pulse oximeter
• ☐ Penlight (for eye assessments)
• ☐ Sterile eye pads

Personal Protective Equipment

• ☐ Face shields
• ☐ Surgical masks
• ☐ Hand sanitizer

Miscellaneous

• ☐ First-aid manual or emergency guidelines
• ☐ CPR instructions chart
• ☐ Medical incident report forms
• ☐ Sharps disposal container
• ☐ Splinter probes

Specialized Supplies (if applicable)

• ☐ EpiPen (for severe allergic reactions)
• ☐ AED (Automated External Defibrillator) and replacement pads
• ☐ Glucose gel or tablets (for diabetic emergencies)

For Remote Locations or Extended Shoots

• ☐ Water purification tablets
• ☐ Sterile suture kit (for extreme emergencies)
• ☐ Syringes and IV start kit (if trained personnel are present)
• ☐ Trauma shears
• ☐ SAM pelvic sling (for pelvic fractures)

First Aid: A Quick Guide to Emergency Care

First aid is the immediate care given to someone who is injured or suddenly becomes ill. Knowing basic first aid can save lives, prevent complications, and make recovery smoother. This section covers key first-aid principles everyone should know, including wound care, treating burns, handling fractures, and responding to cardiac emergencies.

1. Assess the Situation

Before providing first aid, it’s important to ensure your safety and the safety of the injured person. Follow these steps:

• Stay calm. A calm approach helps both you and the injured person.
• Check for dangers. Ensure that the environment is safe (look for traffic, fire, or hazardous materials).
• Call for help. Dial emergency services (911 in the U.S.) if the injury or illness is serious.
• Get consent. If the person is conscious, ask if they’re okay with you helping them.

2. The ABCs of First Aid

These are the foundational steps in first aid, particularly in life-threatening situations:

• Airway. Ensure the person’s airway is open and clear of obstructions.
• Breathing. Check if the person is breathing. If not, begin rescue breaths.
• Circulation. Check for a pulse or signs of circulation. If absent, start chest compressions.

Bleeding

Minor bleeding:

Clean the wound with water and apply pressure with a sterile dressing. Cover with a bandage.

Severe bleeding:

Apply pressure to the wound with a clean cloth. If blood soaks through, do not remove the cloth; add another layer. Elevate the injured area above heart level if possible and seek emergency help.

Burns

First-degree burns (e.g., sunburn):

Cool the burn under running water for at least 10 minutes. Apply aloe vera or a soothing cream.

Second-degree burns (blisters):

Cool under water and avoid popping blisters. Cover with a sterile, non-adhesive dressing. Seek medical attention for large burns.

Third-degree burns (charred skin):

Do not apply water or creams. Cover with a sterile cloth and seek immediate emergency care.

Fractures

Suspected broken bones:

Immobilize the injured area by applying a splint or padding. Avoid moving the person unnecessarily. Use a cold compress to reduce swelling and seek medical help.

Open fractures:

If the bone is protruding through the skin, cover with a sterile dressing but do not push the bone back into place. Call for emergency medical services.

CPR and Cardiac Emergencies

When to perform CPR:

CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) is critical when a person has no pulse and is not breathing. Follow these steps:

• Step 1, Chest compressions. Place your hands on the center of the chest and press down hard and fast, about 100 to 120 compressions per minute.
• Step 2, Rescue breaths. After 30 compressions, give 2 rescue breaths by tilting the head back, sealing the mouth over theirs, and blowing air into their lungs. Continue the cycle of 30 compressions and 2 breaths.

Using an AED:

An Automated External Defibrillator (AED) can restart a heart that has stopped. If available:

• Turn on the AED and follow the audio/visual prompts.
• Attach the pads to the person’s bare chest, one on the upper right and one on the lower left.
• Allow the AED to analyze the heart rhythm and follow instructions to deliver a shock if necessary.

Choking

Mild choking:

Encourage the person to cough to clear the blockage.

Severe choking:

Perform the Heimlich maneuver by standing behind the person, placing your arms around their waist, and making quick, upward thrusts with your fist just above their navel. For unconscious choking victims, begin CPR immediately.

Allergic Reactions

Mild reactions:

Administer antihistamines if the person is experiencing mild symptoms such as itching or swelling.

Severe reactions (anaphylaxis):

If the person has an epinephrine auto-injector (e.g., EpiPen), administer the shot in the thigh. Call emergency services immediately as this condition can be life-threatening.

Shock

Shock can occur after a severe injury or blood loss and is life-threatening if untreated.

• Symptoms. Pale, cold, and clammy skin, rapid breathing, dizziness, or confusion.
• First aid. Lay the person down with their legs elevated if possible. Cover them with a blanket to keep them warm. Seek emergency help.

Heat- and Cold-Related Illnesses

1. Heat exhaustion:

Move the person to a cool place and provide water or a sports drink to rehydrate. Cool them down with wet clothes or a fan. Place ice packs under arms, and on femoral arteries at the groin.

2. Heat stroke:

This is a medical emergency. Call 911 immediately. Cool the person with cold water, ice packs, or a fan.

3. Frostbite:

Move the person indoors and soak the affected area in warm (not hot) water. Do not rub the skin, as this can cause further damage.

4. Hypothermia:

Remove wet clothing and cover the person with blankets. Warm the person slowly, starting with the core of their body. Avoid direct heat, such as heating pads, as they can cause shock.

How to Use a Fire Extinguisher

To use a fire extinguisher properly, follow the PASS technique, which is a simple and effective way to remember the key steps for using a fire extinguisher safely.

Additional Tips

• Stand 8 feet away from the fire and move closer as the fire diminishes.
• Always keep your back to an exit, ensuring a safe escape route in case the fire grows too large.
• If the fire doesn’t go out after using the extinguisher, evacuate immediately and call the fire department.

This method applies to most types of portable fire extinguishers commonly found in homes and workplaces. It’s also important to check the type of fire extinguisher you’re using and ensure it’s appropriate for the class of fire you’re dealing with (Class A, B, C, D, or K).

Check Your Knowledge

Test Yourself

Twelve questions drawn from across the book. Answer each one to see how it lands, and the reason behind it.

About the Author

Steve Wolf

wolf.steve@gmail.com · (512) 653-9653

Companies and Roles

Wolf Stuntworks, LLC, 1986 to Present

President and CEO, Stunt and Special FX Coordination

Train and lead a team of top entertainment industry engineers. Supervise firearms, engineering, pyrotechnics, marketing, sales, and business development. Wolf Stuntworks creates exciting action sequences for movies, TV shows, and live events, including films for Tom Cruise, Tom Hanks, and James Cameron.

Clients include Paramount Pictures, Disney, Warner Brothers, Columbia Pictures, ABC, CBS, NBC, PBS, HBO, Discovery, History, A&E, and Bravo.

Engineers and builds adventure park experiences for Busch Gardens, SeaWorld, Six Flags, and Evel Knievel, and challenge courses for schools and municipalities, including the NYC Parks Department.

Team Wildfire, Inc., 2020 to Present

Founder and CEO, Wildfire Suppression Innovation

Design, engineer, and build the world’s most powerful wildfire suppression equipment, using ground-based jet engines to deliver fire suppression chemicals to areas inaccessible to fire trucks and airplanes. Patent-pending technology. Author of four patents.

Executive Director, Wildfire Labs, 501(c)(3)

Lead investigations in wildfire research, including causation, mitigation, resilience planning, risk reduction, suppression hardware, software, and chemistries, community and building codes, and utilities infrastructure.

Science in the Movies, LLC, 1992 to Present

President and CEO

Created, developed, and presented the #1 STEM keynote presentation for science festivals, presenting to over 2 million people at events including the World Science Festival, the U.S. Science & Engineering Festival, and the Serbian, Greek, UAE, and Qatar Science Festivals. Reveals the science behind stunts and effects. Twice named “Science Presenter of the Year” by Time Warner Cable, and recipient of Casio’s “Most Influential Science Teacher in America” award.

Stunt Ranch, 2005 to Present

President and CEO

Created the leading destination for corporate team-building outings of under 500 people. Doubled sales every year. Recruited and trained high-performing sales, marketing, and service-delivery teams. Landed amazing publicity, with news coverage on every network, segments with Mike Rowe and Larry the Cable Guy, and numerous shows on Discovery, History, A&E, and Bravo.

Rangemaster, 1995 to 2000

Founder and General Manager

Founder of Rangemaster, the largest personal-protection training range in the U.S. Created a nationally syndicated talk show, “Crime Talk,” to promote the business. Increased sales by 110% every 6 weeks. Surpassed nearest competition by 12X. Trained civilians, police, and SWAT team members. Secured national media coverage on CBS News, and articles in dozens of publications.

Trial Films, 1992 to Present

President and CEO

Created the first film production studio formed exclusively to create short, convincing demonstrative presentations for use at trial, breaking down complex technical materials into simple elements that are easily understood. Won every single case, including cases against Disney.

Pyro School, 2010 to Present

President and CEO

Provides academic and practical training for professionals and enthusiasts, and civilian bomb response.

Wolf Engineering

Fire-suppression foam systems, advanced firefighting apparatus for forest fire suppression, telescope remediation for McDonald Observatory, and engineering support for capping Deepwater.

Selected Project List

TV Shows

• David Letterman
• Extreme Home Makeover
• America’s Most Wanted
• Californication
• Call to Greatness
• Law and Order
• One Life To Live
• All My Children
• Rescue 911
• Houdini’s Last Secrets
• Ancient Impossible
• What Destroyed the Hindenburg
• Larry the Cable Guy
• Shipping Wars

Movies

• The Firm
• Cast Away
• Colombiana
• A Time To Kill
• The Client
• Spiderman
• The Jungle Book
• The Last Boy Scout
• Do The Right Thing
• Hustle & Flow
• Fast Food Nation
• Crocodile Dundee II
• American Outlaws
• Bending Light

Commercials, Videos, and Events

• Dallas Cowboys
• Whitney Houston
• Mariah Carey
• Macklemore
• Pompeii
• U.S. Secret Service
• Nintendo
• Mercedes
• Chevrolet
• Nike
• AT&T
• FedEx
• Yeti

TV Shows Hosted

• “Houdini’s Last Secrets”, Discovery Science
• “Ancient Impossible”, History Channel
• “Presidential Beast”, Discovery Channel
• “Curiosity: Hindenburg”, Discovery Channel
• “Larry the Cable Guy”, History Channel
• “Shipping Wars”, A&E Network

Books Authored

• Tactical Choices, a manual for safe and effective handgun use
• A Day in the Life of a Stunt Person
• The Secret Science Behind Movie Stunts & Special Effects
• A Producer’s Primer in Action Sequence Filming
• Deadly Hospital Mistakes
• Practice Safe Sets

Patents Written

• Advanced firefighting apparatus for forest fire suppression
• Supplemental oxygen systems for combustion engines in low-oxygen environments
• Portable flame-suppression system for rapid wildfire attack
• Deep Red: AI-based wildfire suppression decision-support system

Education

• Columbia University, B.A. Writing and Literature. Minors in Shakespeare and Physics.
• Meisner Technique, Gately/Poole Studios, NYC (2 years), Michael Shurtleff, Loyd Williamson.

Awards

• Time Warner “Science Presenter of the Year”
• World Record, Longest tandem zipline
• World Record, Most explosives safely fired on a person’s body

Emergency Team Experience

• FEMA Task Force 1 Rescue Division
• Shelby County Sheriff’s Office Emergency Services Unit
• North Hays Volunteer Fire Department
• Woodstock Fire Department
• Safety Chairman, Screen Actors Guild
• Safety Chairman, IATSE
• Boulder Emergency Services Rescue Unit

Memberships

• IATSE
• Screen Actors Guild
• Pyrotechnic Guild of America
• Association for Challenge Course Technology
• International Association of Climbing Judges

Licenses

• BATF Class 20 Explosives Manufacturing License
• Special Effects and Pyrotechnic Operator License
• Flame Effect Operator’s License
• Class A CDL with HazMat
• International Association of Climbing Judges
• NRA & State Certified Firearms Instructor
• NAUI Scuba Instructor License
• Licensed Private Investigator
• Emergency Medical Technician

Certifications and Training

• Rigging risk analysis and mitigation
• HazMat handling and emergency response
• Search and rescue
• Aerial rope and rigging rescue methods
• Heavy equipment operator, including backhoe, forklift, scissor lift, and condor
• Swiftwater rescue, scuba rescue

FEMA Training Certifications

• Incident Command Systems
• Incident Command and Response
• Incident Management
• National Emergency Response
• Active Shooter Response
• Public Information Officer for Disasters
• Social Media for Emergency Management
• The Role of Volunteer Agencies in Emergency Management
• FEMA Safety Orientation
• Disaster management command structure
• Leadership and Influence
• Effective Communication
• Decision Making and Problem Solving
• HazMat Handling and Emergency Response
• Emergency Planning
• Wildfire Mitigation
• Telecommunicator Emergency Response Taskforce

Expertise and Skills

Advanced training in the use of high and low explosives, blasting agents, pyrotechnics, open flame, close-proximity pyro, fire stunts, scuba, rigging, climbing and rappelling, vehicle extrication, precision driving, fabrication, electronics, pneumatics, hydraulics, sensors, and welding. Fluent French.

• Advanced firearms instructor training including range development
• Martial arts including Judo and Tae Kwon Do
• Advanced training in TFT (Special Forces hand-to-hand combat training)

Expert Witness Experience

Steve Wolf has investigated, reviewed, re-enacted, and testified in dozens of cases in state and federal court for matters involving death, serious bodily injury, and wrongful death, in criminal and civil courts. Specializations include zipline, recreational and theatrical rigging safety, indoor and outdoor climbing, alpine safety, explosives and pyrotechnics, deadly force, tactics, range safety, gun handling, and firearms safety. Call for a complete case listing.

Selected cases:

• State of Tennessee v. Michael Mullins, Homicide trial. Defense’s expert: fuel and fire.
• Doe v. U.S. Government, Mass shooting and bombing. Defense’s expert: firearms use and reaction time.
• Higgs v. TSE, Electrocution. Plaintiff’s expert: high-tension systems, equipment, and procedures.
• Atain v. NNG, New York, cervical injury. Plaintiff’s expert: ropes course, zipline definitions and procedures.
• Richards v. Spiderman on Broadway, NYC, spinal injury. Plaintiff’s expert: rigging, harnesses, computerized flight control.
• Bazylewicz v. Church Mutual Insurance, Cleveland, Ohio, cervical injury. Plaintiff’s expert: ropes course, rigging, belaying, equipment, and procedures.
• Lubitsch v. Adirondack Scenic, Six Flags, New York, NY, spinal injury. Plaintiff’s expert: theatrical rigging, equipment and procedures.
• Danny Bell v. Sumo USA, Dallas, Texas, brain injury. Defense’s expert: recreational climbing, rigging, belaying, equipment, and procedures.
• Deanna Theis v. Climb Max, New Orleans, Louisiana, spinal injury. Plaintiff’s expert: recreational climbing, rigging, belaying, equipment, and procedures.
• De Rita v. C.A.I.U., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, fatality. Plaintiff’s expert: ropes course, climbing, rigging, belaying, equipment, and procedures.
• Ro v. San Juan Mountain Guides, Jeff Lowe, Ouray, Colorado, fatality. Plaintiff’s expert: ice climbing, rigging, belaying, equipment, and procedures.
• Sarrette v. Just For Fun Rentals, Boston, Massachusetts, fatality. Plaintiff’s expert: recreational climbing, rigging, belaying, equipment, and procedures.
• Bailey v. Showman Fabricators (Disney), New York City, multiple fractures. Defense’s expert: theatrical rigging, equipment and procedures.
• Rorick v. In Events, Honolulu, Hawaii, multiple injuries. Defense’s expert: outdoor rigging, equipment and procedures, industry norms.
• Veysey v. Rock On Adventure, Boston, brain injury. Plaintiff’s expert: indoor climbing and challenge course, equipment and procedures.
• Chen v. Dumbo Bolder, NYC, fracture. Plaintiff’s expert: indoor climbing and challenge course, equipment and procedures.
• Unnamed Plaintiff v. USGS, Federal Court, Lawrence, KS, fatality and serious injury. Defense’s expert: explosives and firearms.
• Botuchis v. LD Filmworks, Head injury. Plaintiff’s expert: explosives and firearms.
• State v. Terry Smith, Texas City, TX, drowning. Defense’s expert: tidal movement.
• Ernst v. Church, Sacramento, CA, loss of eye. Plaintiff’s expert: paintball, equipment and procedures.
• Peters v. City of Wichita, Wichita, KS, shotgun injuries. Plaintiff’s expert: theatrical use of firearms.
• Lecher v. School District of La Crosse, Wisconsin, fracture. Defense’s expert: outdoor rec supervision.
• DeMayo v. Xtreme Paintball, Salt Lake City, UT. Plaintiff’s expert: paintball, equipment and procedures.
• Razo v. No Exit Films, New Mexico, rollover crash. Plaintiff’s expert: theatrical safety procedures. Plaintiff received the largest award in the State of New Mexico, $66.5M.
• State of New Mexico v. Alec Baldwin, Firearms fatality. Prosecution’s expert.
• Hutchins v. Alec Baldwin, California. Plaintiff’s expert: firearms fatality.
• Mamie Mitchell v. Alec Baldwin, New Mexico. Plaintiff’s expert: firearms fatality.
• Vicens v. Glover aka Stev-O, Mudflap Productions, Puerto Rico, head injury. Plaintiff’s expert: theatrical rigging, stunt safety.
• Kingstone v. Doe, Wildfire damage. Plaintiff’s expert.

Firearms Safety Expertise

Thirty years of experience in firearms instruction, curriculum development, and safety expertise, across a wide variety of environments, from movie sets to Navy SEALs operations.

Founder:

• Rangemaster, the most prolific indoor pistol training range in the U.S.
• Tactical Choices, firearms instruction school
• Stunt Ranch and Hill 13 Paintball
• Wolf Stuntworks

Training, licenses, and certifications:

• NRA Range Development School
• NRA Firearms Instructor Development School
• State Certified Handgun Instructor
• SWAT Firearms Instructor
• Youth Firearms Safety Training Instructor, NRA
• Refuse To Be A Victim Instructor, NRA
• Anti-Crime Driver Training Instructor
• Navy Special Warfare Department Contractor
• Secret Service Contractor
• Single Action Pistol Training and Instructor
• Advanced Tactical Pistol Training
• Explosives Entry Techniques
• Explosives Instructor, Special FX International
• Host of nationally syndicated radio show, “Crime Talk”
• IDPA Custom Defensive Pistol Division Ranked Shooter
• Certified Expert Witness on firearms use
• EMT, First Aid and CPR Instructor
• Licensed Private Investigator
• Licensed Scuba Instructor
• Licensed Explosive Manufacturer
• Licensed Pyrotechnician
• Civilian bomb response course developer and instructor
• Class 33 BATFE Explosive Manufacturer’s License
• Former BATFE Class 1 FFL holder
• Special Effects Operator License
• FEMA Active Shooter Response

Explosives and Pyrotechnics Expertise

More than 30 years of experience in stunt and special-FX pyro for feature films and theatrical productions.

• Class 20 BATFE Explosive Manufacturer’s License
• Special Effects Operator License
• Flame Effects Operator License
• Emergency Medical Technician (21 years experience)
• Civilian bomb response course instructor
• Shelby County Sheriff’s Office Emergency Services Unit
• Chairman, Safety Committee of the TN division of the Screen Actors Guild
• Chairman, Safety Committee for the International Alliance of Theatrical and Stage Employees, Local 69
• Owner, Wolf Stuntworks, LLC, pyrotechnic specialists
• Owner, Stunt Ranch, Austin, TX
• Pyrotechnics Instructor, Special FX International
• Designer and builder of pyro test facilities
• Contributing editor, “Lights, Camera, Safety,” published by Center for Safety in the Arts, funded by grant from the New York State Department of Labor
• Author, “The Secret Science Behind Movie Stunts & Special Effects,” sold internationally
• Author, “Bomb Recognition and Response for Civilians”
• 30 years of explosives handling experience
• Licensed Private Investigator (retired), TX TCPS License 10835

Selected Stunt, Pyro, and FX Credits

Houdini’s Last Secrets, Discovery Science

Host, stunt coordinator, stunt engineer.

Ancient Impossible, History Channel

Lead investigator, steam cannon.

Curiosity: Hindenburg, Discovery Channel

Host and lead investigator.

Larry the Cable Guy, History Channel

Stunt and SPFX coordinator, pyro, guest.

Shipping Wars, A&E Network

Stunt and SPFX coordinator, pyro, guest.

Colombiana, EuropaCorp

Special effects foreman and pyrotechnician.

Extreme Home Makeover, ABC-TV

Stunt and SPFX coordinator and pyrotechnician.

Fast Food Nation, Richard Linklater

Special effects coordinator.

The Firm, Paramount Pictures

Special effects coordinator. 133 effects.

Cast Away, 20th Century Fox

FX tech. Rain, rain, rain.

Hustle & Flow, Universal Pictures

FX coordinator. Rain, shootings, prop fabrication, U/V FX.

The Client, Warner Brothers

FX tech. Fire, smoke, electronics, rigging.

The David Letterman Show, CBS Television

FX coordinator. Exploding Dave’s set furniture.

The 25th Hour, Walt Disney Pictures

FX coordinator, Texas. Interior smoke.

Expedition: Bismarck, James Cameron

FX coordinator. Smoke, fire, explosions, water FX.

American Outlaws, Morgan Creek Productions

FX tech. Explosions, bullet hits, smoke.

The Jungle Book, Walt Disney Pictures

FX tech. Fire, safety rigging, atmosphere, fabrication.

America’s Most Wanted, STF Productions

FX coordinator. Explosives, house burns, shootings, chases.

Kings of the Evening, Picture Palace Films

FX coordinator. Structure fires.

A Time To Kill, Warner Brothers

FX tech. Fabrication, atmospherics.

The Last Boy Scout, Warner Brothers

Exploding football sequence producer.

Whitney Houston, Nitrate Films

Video FX coordinator. “I’m Your Baby Tonight.” Mercury, rain.

Law and Order, Wolf Films

FX coordinator. Laser-aligned bullet hits, armorer.

Beyond the Prairie, CBS Television

FX coordinator. Rain, snow, smoke, haze, scuba.

Master of the Game, Priles Entertainment

FX tech. Bullet hits, rain, mist.

One Life To Live, ABC-TV

FX tech. Fire stunt and effect.

Blue Cross / Blue Shield, BC/BS of NJ

FX coordinator. Body burn, bullet hits, car stunts.

Comedy Central

FX coordinator. “Smoking” jacket.

AT&T, Gary Zeller, Coord.

FX tech. Liquid nitrogen, fiber-optics.

FedEx, Penczner Productions

FX coordinator. Exploding window, fire stunt.

Broken Sky, PBS Television

FX coordinator. Plane crash site. Extensive smoke and pyro.

Finding Graceland, TCB Productions

FX coordinator. Exterior rain effects.

Dallas Cowboys, Dallas Cowboys Club

FX coordinator. Live pyro and confetti effects.

U.S. Secret Service

FX coordinator and instructor, tactical training course.

Governor Perry Inaugural, Glenn Smith Presents

FX coordinator. Confetti, indoor pyro.

Polygram Records, Interlink Productions

Stunt and SPFX coordinator. Full body burn.

Storage USA, Thompson Advertising

FX coordinator. Flying sofa (practical).

Fallen Heroes, Armed Forces TV

FX coordinator. Explosions, mortars, grenades, squibs.

Nintendo, Broadcast Arts

FX tech. Explosives, fire, slime.

Mercedes, Chevrolet

Pyrotechnic effects coordinator, rigging, marine safety.

Willie & Me, Belladonna Productions

Stunt coordinator.

Call to Greatness, MTV, Liquid Theory

Stunt and FX coordinator. World records for zipline and squibs.

Crocodile Dundee II, Paramount Pictures

Scuba and high-fall safety team.

Do The Right Thing, 40 Acres and a Mule

Stunt safety team.

All My Children, ABC-TV

Stunt double for “Billy Clyde.”

Three Men and A Baby, Touchstone Pictures

Driving sequences safety team.

Rescue 911, CBS Television

Stunt rigger, driving stunts, scuba coordinator.

Doonby, Sure Crossing Films

Stunt coordinator, pyro.

Kings of Appletown, Oak Films

Marine safety coordinator, stunt coordinator.

Three Wishes, NBC, June Road Productions

Stunt and special effects coordinator. Spiderman zipline.

The End